AGRICUUURE 

FOR 

BEGINNERS 

BURKETT  STEVENS 
AND  HILL 


BCOMP'\?Q 


\l 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/agricultureforbOOburl< 


AGRICULTURE   FOR 
BEGINNERS 


BV 

CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT 

Editor  of  the  Amer/c.4X  Acr/clltlr/st 

formerlv  director  of  agriclltiral  experiment  station 

K.\NSAs  State  Agriclltlral  College 


FRANK  LINCOLN  STEVENS 

Professor  of  Plant  Pathoijogv,  University  of  Illinois 

FORMERLY  TeACHER  OF  SCIENCE    IN  HlC.H  ScHOOL 

CoLiMBis,  Ohio 

AND 

DANIEL  HARVEY  HILL 

President  of  the  North  Carolina  College  of 
Agricvlti're  and  Mechanic  Arts 


REVISED  EDITIOX 


GIXX  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


Ccii-VRK,IIT,  1903,  1904,  igi4,  HY 

Charles  William  Uurkett,  Frank  Lincoln  Stevens 

AND  Daniel  Harvey  Hill 


ALL    KKIHIS   RESERVED 
214.2 


i;lNN   AND  lUMl'AiW  •  I'KU- 
PKIHTOKS  •  UOSTUN  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

Since  its  first  publication  "Agriculture  for  Beginners" 
has  found  a  welcome  in  thousands  of  schools  and  homes. 
Naturally  many  suggestions  as  to  changes,  additions,  and 
other  improvements  have  reached  its  authors.  Naturally,  too, 
the  authors  have  busied  themselves  in  devising  methods  to 
add  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  book.  Some  additions  have 
been  made  almost  ever)-  year  since  the  book  was  published. 
To  embodv  all  these  changes  and  helpful  suggestions  into  a 
stricth-  unified  volume  ;  to  add  some  further  topics  and  sec- 
tions ;  to  bring  all  farm  practices  up  to  the  ideals  of  to-day ;  to 
include  the  most  recent  teaching  of  scientific  investigators  — 
these  were  the  objects  sought  in  the  thorough  revision  which 
has  just  been  given  the  book.  The  authors  hope  and  think 
that  the  remaking  of  the  book  has  added  to  its  usefulness 
and  attractiveness. 

They  believe  now,  as  they  believed  before,  that  there  is  no 
line  of  separation  between  the  science  of  agriculture  and  the 
practical  art  of  agriculture.  They  are  assured  by  the  success 
of  this  book  that  agriculture  is  eminently  a  teachable  subject. 
They  see  no  difference. bet\veen  teaching  the  child  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  farming  and  teaching  the  same  child 
the  fundamental  truths  of  arithmetic,  geography,  or  grammar. 
The)' hold  that  a  youth  should  be  trained  for  the  farm  just  as 
carefully  as  he  is  trained  for  any  other  occupation,  and  that 
it  is  unreasonable  to  expect  him  to  succeed  without  training. 


iv  AGRICULTIRE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 

If  they  are  right  in  these  views,  the  training  must  begin 
in  the  public  schools.    This  is  true  for  t^vo  reasons  : 

1.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  aptitudes  are  devel- 
oped, tastes  acquired,  and  life  habits  formed  during  the  years 
that  a  child  is  in  the  public  school.  Hence,  during  these 
important  years  ever\-  child  intended  for  the  farm  should 
be  taught  to  know  and  love  nature,  should  be  led  to  form 
habits  of  obser\ation,  and  should  be  required  to  begin  a 
study  of  those  great  laws  upon  which  agricultiu-e  is  based. 
A  training  like  this  goes  far  toward  making  his  life-work 
profitable  and  delightful. 

2.  Most  boys  and  girls  reared  on  a  farm  get  no  educa- 
tional training  except  that  given  in  the  public  schools.  If, 
then,  the  truths  that  unlock  the  doors  of  nature  are  not 
taught  in  the  public  schools,  nature  and  nature's  laws  will 
always  be  hid  in  night  to  a  majorit}-  of  our  bread-winners. 
They  must  still  in  ignorance  and  hopeless  drudgers-  tear 
their  bread  from  a  reluctant  soil. 

The  authors  return  hearty  thanks  to  Professor  Thomas 
F.  Hunt.  Universit)-  of  California ;  Professor  Augustine  D. 
Selby,  Ohio  Experiment  Station  ;  Professor  W".  F.  Massey, 
horticulturist  and  agricultural  writer  ;  and  Professor  Franklin 
Sherman,  Jr..  State  Entomologist  of  North  Carolina,  for 
aid  in  proofreading  and  in  the  preparation  of  some  of  the 
material. 


CONTEXTS 

CHAPTER  I.   THE  SOIL 

SECTION  PAGE 

I.   Origin  of  the  Soil i 

II.    Tillage  of  the  Soil 6 

III.  The  MoisTiRE  of  the  Soil 9 

IV.  How  THE  Water  rise.s  in  the  Soil 13 

V.    Draining  the  Soil 14 

VI.   Improving  the  Soil 17 

VII.    Manlring  the  Soil 21 

CHAPTER  II.    THE  SOIL  AND  THE   PLANT 

VIII.    R00T.S 25 

IX.    How  the  Plant  feeds  from  the  Soil 29 

X.    Root-Tlbercles 30 

XI.   The  Rot.\tion  of  Crops ^^ 

CHAPTER  III.    THE  PLANT 

XII.   How  the  Plant  feeds  from  the  Air 39 

XIII.  The  Sap  Current 40 

XIV.  The  Flower  and  the  Seed 42 

XV.   Pollination      46 

XVI.   Crosses,  Hybrids,  and  Cross-Pollin.\tion 48 

XVII.   PROP.A.GATION  BY  BiTDs 51 

XVIII.   Plant  Seeding 59 

XIX.   Selecting  Seed  Corn 66 

XX.   Weeds 69 

XXI.    Seed  Pcrity  and  Vitality 72 


vi  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

CHAPTER  IV.    HOW  TO   RAISE  A   FRUIT  TREE 

SECTION  PAGE 

XXII.   Gr.\ftixg 78 

XXIII.  Budding Si 

XXIV.  Plaxting  and  Pruning S3 

CHAPTER  V.   HORTICULTURE 

XXV.   Market-g.\rdening 89 

XXVI.    Flower-g.\rdening loS 

CHAPTER  VI.    THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 

XXVII.   The  Cause  and  Nature  of  Plant  Disease  ....  122 

XXVIII.   Yeast  and  Bacteria 127 

XXIX.   Prevention  of  Plant  Disease 129 

XXX.   Some  Special  Plant  Diseases 130 

CHAPTER  VII.    ORCHARD,  GARDEN.  AND  FIELD  INSECTS 

XXXI.   Insects  in  Gener.\l 144 

XXXII.   Orchard  Insects 132 

XXXIII.  Garden  .\nd  Field  Insects 165 

XXXIV.  The  Cotton-Boll  Weevil 173 

CHAPTER  VIII.    FARM  CROPS 

XXXV.   Cotton 180 

XXXVI.   ToB.\cco 1S9 

XXXVII.   Whe.\t 192 

XXXVIII.   Corn 197 

XXXIX.  Peanuts 202 

XL.   Sweet  Pot.\toes 204 

XLI.   White,  or  Irish.  Potatoes 206 

XLII.  O.ATS 209 


CONTENTS  vii 

SECTION  PA«^ 

XLIII.  Rye 213 

XLIV.  Uarley -'5 

XLV.  Sugar  Plants 217 

XLVI.  Hemp  and  Flax --^ 

XLVII.  Buckwheat ^-9 

XLVIII.  Rkt. -3' 

XLIX.  The  Timber  CRf)i" -3- 

L.  The  Farm  Garden -35 

CHAPTER  IX.    FEED  STUFFS     - 

EI.   Grasses -3^ 

LIE    Eegumes      -44 

CHAPTER  X.    DOMESTIC  AXIMAES 

EIIE  Horses 262 

EIV.  Cattle -7° 

EV.  Sheep 276 

lAI.  Swine      -79 

EVIE  Farm  Poiltrv -^- 

E\'III.  Pee  CuLTiRE -S6 

EE\.  Why  we  feed  Animals 290 

CHAPTER  XI.    FARM   DAIRVIXG 

EX.   The  Dairy  Cow 293 

l.Xl.    Mii.K,  Cream,  Churning,  and  Butter 297 

EXn.    Hi)W  Milk  sours 302 

EX  in.    The  Bahcock  Milk-Tester 304 

CHAPTER  XII.    MISCEEEAXEOUS 

EX  IV.    Growing  Feed  Stuffs  on  the  Farm 309 

EXV.   Farm  Tools  and  M.achines 313 

LXVI.   Liming  the  Land 3^5 


viii  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

SECTION  PAGE 

LXVII.   Birds 31S 

LXVIII.    Farming  on  Dry  Land 323 

LXIX.   Irrigation 326 

LXX.   Life  in  the  Country 330 

APPEXDLX 339 

GLOSSARY 342 

IXDEX 351 


TO   THE   TEACHER 

An  earnest  teaching  of  this  book  will  add  to  the  attractive- 
ness of  your  course  of  study.  Do  not  hesitate  to  enter  very 
heartily  into  the  subject.  To  teach  agriculture  you  need  not 
feel  that  you  must  be  an  authority  on  all  questions  arising  in 
this  broad  field.  To  teach  the  elements  of  agriculture  one 
need  not  be  an  expert  in  agricultural  science.  A  farm  prac- 
tice based  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  science  will 
make  life  on  the  farm  easier  and  will  make  the  farm  more 
beautiful,  more  productive,  and  more  profitable.  Any  earnest 
teacher  can  easily  learn  these  principles  and  then  teach  them 
with  success. 

When  it  is  possible,  lead  the  pupils  out  into  the  field, 
make  simple  experiments  before  them,  and  have  them  also 
perform  experiments.  Let  them  learn  directly  from  nature  ; 
a  fact  gained  at  first  hand  will  linger  in  the  mind  long  after 
mere  second-hand  book-knowledge  has  departed.  Teach  by 
observation  and  experiment.  The  young  mind  grasps  the 
concrete  but  wearies  with  the  abstract. 

You  will  find  in  the  practical  exercises  many  suggestions 
as  to  experiments  that  you  can  make  with  your  class.  Do 
not  neglect  these.  They  will  be  the  life  of  your  work.  In 
many  cases  it  will  be  best  to  perform  the  experimental  or 
observational  work  first,  and  turn  later  to  the  text  to  amplify 
the  pupil's  knowledge. 

Although  the  authors  have  arranged  this  book  in  a  logical 
order,  they  hope  that  teachers  will  feel  free  to  teach  each 


X        AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

topic  in  the  season  best  suited  to  its  study.  Omit  any  chapter 
or  section  that  does  not  deal  with  conditions  in  your  state  or 
with  your  crops. 

Tr}-  to  get  for  your  school  library  ever)-  farm  bulletin 
issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
as  many  bulletins  as  possible  from  different  state  experiment 
stations.  These  bulletins  cost  nothing  and  are  mines  of 
practical  and  interesting  information. 


TO  THE   PUPIL 

Consult  the  glossar\-  in  the  back  of  this  book  for  the 
meanings  of  all  hard  words. 

Perform  all  the  suggested  experiments  for  yourself.  Do 
not  be  content  to  watch  your  teacher  or  your  fellow-students 
perform  the  experiments.  First-hand  work  gives  expertness, 
accuracy,  interest,  knowledge,  and  power. 

Above  all,  learn  of  nature.  At  first  she  is  a  shy  and 
silent  teacher,  but  on  better  acquaintance  she  will  talk  to 
you  in  many  tongues. 


AGRICULTURE   FOR   BEGINNERS 

CHAPTER  I 

the'  soil 

section  i.  origin'  of  the  soil 

The  word  soil  occurs  many  times  in  this  Httle  book.  In 
agriculture  this  word  is  used  to  describe  the  thin  layer  of 
surface  earth  that,  like  some  great  blanket,  is  tucked  around 
the  wrinkled  and  age-beaten  form  of  our  globe.  The  harder 
and  colder  earth  under  this  surface  layer  is  called  the  subsoil. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  in  waterless  and  sun-dried 
regions  there  seems  little  difference  between  the  soil  and 
the  subsoil. 

Plants,  insects,  birds,  beasts,  men,  —  all  alike  are  fed  on 
what  grows  in  this  thin  layer  of  soil.  If  some  wild  flood  in 
sudden  wrath  could  sweep  into  the  ocean  this  earth-wrapping 
soil,  food  would  soon  become  as  scarce  as  it  was  in  Samaria 
when  mothers  ate  their  sons.  The  face  of  the  earth  as  we 
now  see  it,  daintily  robed  in  grass,  or  uplifting  waving  acres 
of  com,  or  even  naked,  water-scarred,  and  disfigured  by  man's 
neglect,  is  ver)-  different  from  what  it  was  in  its  earliest  davs. 
How  was  it  then  }    How  was  the  soil  formed  } 

Learned  men  think  that  at  first  the  surface  of  the  earth 
was  solid  rock.  How  was  this  rock  changed  into  workable 
soil }  Occasionally  a  curious  boy  picks  up  a  rotten  stone, 
squeezes  it,  and  finds  his  hands  filled  with  dirt,  or  soil.   Now, 

I 


2        AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

just  as  the  boy  crumbled  with  his  fingers  this  single  stone, 
the  great  forces  of  nature  with  boundless  patience  crumbled, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  disintegrated,  the  early  rock  mass.  The 
simple  but  giant-strong  agents  that  beat  the  rocks  into  pow- 
der with  a  clublike  force  a  millionfold  more  powerful  than 
the  club  force  of  Hercules  were  chiefly  (i)  heat  and  cold; 
(2)  water,  frost,  and  ice;  (3;  a  ven-  low  form  of  vegetable 
life;  and  (4)  tiny  animals  —  if  such  minute  bodies  can  be 
called  animals.  In  some  cases  these  forces  acted  singly ;  in 
others,  all  acted  together  to  rend  and  crumble  the  unbroken 
stretch  of  rock.  Let  us  glance  at  some  of  the  methods  used 
by  these  skilled  soil-makers. 

Heat  and  cold  are  working  partners.  You  already  know 
that  most  hot  bodies  shrink,  or  contract,  on  cooling.  The 
early  rocks  were  hot.  As  the  outside  shell  of  rock  cooled 
from  exposure  to  air  and  moisture  it  contracted.  This  shrink- 
age of  the  rigid  rim  of  course  broke  mam*  of  the  rocks,  and 
here  and  there  left  cracks,  or  fissures.  In  these  fissures  water 
collected  and  froze.  As  freezing  water  expands  with  irre- 
sistible power,  the  expansion  still  further  broke  the  rocks  to 
pieces.  The  smaller  pieces  again,  in  the  same  wa},  were  acted 
on  by  frost  and  ice  and  again  crumbled.  This  process  is 
still  a  means  of  soil-formation. 

Running  water  was  another  giant  soil-former.  If  you  would 
understand  its  action,  obser\'e  some  usually  sparkling  stream 
just  after  a  washing  rain.  The  clear  waters  are  discolored  by 
mud  washed  in  from  the  surrounding  hills.  As  though  dis- 
liking their  muddy  burden,  the  waters  strive  to  throw  it  off. 
Here,  as  low  banks  offer  chance,  they  run  out  into  shallows 
and  drop  some  of  it.  Here,  as  they  pass  a  quiet  pool,  they 
deposit  more.  At  last  they  reach  the  still  water  at  the  mouth 
of  the  stream,  and  there  they  leave  behind  the  last  of  their 


THE  SOIL  3 

mud  load,  and  often  form  of  it  little  three-sided  islands  called 
deltas.  In  the  same  way  mighty  rivers  like  the  Amazon,  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  Hudson,  when  they  are  swollen  by  rain, 
bear  great  quantities  of  soil  in  their  sweep  to  the  seas.  Some 
of  the  soil  they  scatter  over  the  lowlands  as  they  whirl  sea- 
ward ;  the  rest  they  deposit  in  deltas  at  their  mouths.    It  is 


Fig.  I.    Rock  marked  by  the  ScRAriNc  of  a  C^laciek  over  it 

estimated  that  the  Mississippi  carries  to  the  ocean  each  year 
enough  soil  to  cover  a  square  mile  of  surface  to  a  depth  of 
two  hundred  and  sixty-eight  feet. 

The  early  brooks  and  rivers,  instead  of  bearing  mud,  ran 
oceanward  either  bearing  ground  stone  that  they  themselves 
had  worn  from  the  rocks  by  ceaseless  fretting,  or  bearing 
stones  that  other  forces  had  already  dislodged.  The  large 
pieces  were  whirled  from  side  to  side  and  beaten  against 
one  another  or  against  bedrock  until  they  were  ground  into 
smaller  and  smaller  pieces.    The  rivers  distributed  this  rock 


4  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

soil  just  as  the  later  rivers  distribute  mudd\-  soil.  For  ages 
the  mo\"ing  waters  ground  against  the  rocks.  \'ast  were  the 
waters  ;  vast  the  number  of  years  ;  vast  the  results. 

Glaciers  were  another  soil-producing  agent.  Glaciers  are 
streams  "  frozen  and  mo\"ing  slowly  but  irresistibly  onwards, 
down  well-defined  valleys,  grinding  and  pulverizing  the  rock 
masses  detached  by  the  force  and  weight  of  their  attack." 
Where  and  how  were  these  glaciers  formed  ? 

Once  a  great  part  of  upper  North  America  was  a  \-ast 
sheet  of  ice.  Whatever  moisture  fell  from  the  sky  feU  as 
snow.  No  one  knows  what  made  this  long  winter  of  snow, 
but  we  do  know  that  snows  piled  on  snows  until  mountains 
of  white  were  built  up.  The  lower  snow  was  by  the  pres- 
sure of  that  above  it  packed  into  ice  masses.  By  and  by 
some  change  of  climate  caused  the  masses  of  ice  to  break 
up  somewhat  and  to  move  south  and  west.  These  mo\ing 
masses,  carr\-ing  rock  and  frozen  earth,  ground  them  to 
powder.  King  thus  describes  the  stately  movement  of 
these  snow  mountains :  "  Beneath  the  bottom  of  this  slowly 
moxing  sheet  of  ice,  which  with  more  or  less  difficultA* 
kept  itself  conformable  with  the  face  of  the  land  over  which 
it  was  riding,  the  sharper  outstanding  points  were  cut 
away  and  the  deeper  river  canons  filled  in.  Desolate  and 
rugged  rocky  wastes  were  thrown  down  and  spread  over 
with  rich  soil." 

The  joint  action  of  air,  moisture,  and  frost  was  still  another 
agent  of  soil-making.  This  action  is  called  u'cathcriug.  When- 
ever you  have  noticed  the  outside  stones  of  a  spring-house, 
3^ou  have  noticed  that  tiny  bits  are  crumbling  from  the  face 
of  the  stones,  and  adding  little  by  little  to  the  soil.  This  is  a 
slow  way  of  making  additions  to  the  soil.  It  is  estimated  that 
it  would  take  728,000  years  to  wear  aw^y  limestone  rock  to 


THE  SOIL 


5 


a  depth  of  thirty-nine  inches.  But  when  you  recall  the  count- 
less years  through  which  the  weather  has  striven  against  the 
rocks,  you  can  readily  understand  that  its  never-wear)ing 
actixity  has  added  immensely  to  the  soil. 

In  the  rock  soil  formed  in  these  various  ways,  and  indeed 
on  the  rocks  themselves,  tiny  plants  that  live  on  food  taken 
from  the  air  began  to  grow.  They  grew  just  as  )-ou  now  see 
mosses  and  lichens  grow  on  the  surface  of  rocks.   The  decay 


Fig.  2.   Ground  Rock  at  End  of  a  Glacier 

of  these  plants  added  some  fertility  to  the  newly  formed  soil. 
The  life  and  death  of  each  succeeding  generation  of  these 
lowly  plants  added  to  the  soil  matter  accumulating  on  the 
rocks.  Slowly  but  unceasingly  the  soil  increased  in  depth 
until  higher  vegetable  forms  could  flourish  and  add  their  dead 
bodies  to  it.  This  vegetable  addition  to  the  soil  is  generally 
known  as  Imunts. 

In  due  course  of  time  low  forms  of  animal  life  came  to 
live  on  these  plants,  and  in  turn  by  their  work  and  their  death 
to  aid  in  making  a  soil  fit  for  the  plowman. 


6  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Thus  with  a  dehberation  that  fills  man  with  awe,  the  pow- 
erful forces  of  nature  splintered  the  rocks,  ciTimbled  them, 
filled  them  with  plant  food,  and  turned  their  flinty  grains  into 
a  soft,  snug  home  for  vegetable  life. 


SECTION   II.    TILLAGE  OF  THE  SOIL 

A  good  many  years  ago  a  man  hv  the  name  of  Jethro  Tull 
lived  in  England.  He  was  a  farmer  and  a  most  successful 
man  in  every  way.  He  first  taught  the  English  people  and 
the  world  the  value  of  thorough  tillage  of  the  soil.  Before 
and  during  his  time  farmers  did  not  till  the  soil  veiy  intel- 
ligently. They  simply  prepared  the  seed-bed  in  a  careless 
manner,  as  a  great  many  farmers  do  to-day,  and  when  the 
crops  were  gathered  the  fields  were  not  large. 

Jethro  Tull  centered  attention  on  the  important  fact  that 
careful  and  thorough  tillage  increases  the  available  plant  food 
in  the  soil.  He  did  not  know  why  his  crops  were  better 
when  the  ground  was  frequently  and  thoroughly  tilled,  but 
he  knew  that  such  tillage  did  increase  his  yield.  He  ex- 
plained the  fact  by  saying,  "  Tillage  is  manure."  We  have 
since  learned  the  reason  for  the  truth  that  Tull  taught,  and, 
while  his  explanation  was  incorrect,  the  practice  that  he  was 
following  was  excellent.  The  stirring  of  the  soil  enables  the 
air  to  circulate  through  it  freely,  and  permits  a  breaking  down 
of  the  compounds  that  contain  the  elements  necessar}'  to 
plant  growth. 

You  have  seen  how  the  air  helps  to  crumble  the  stone  and 
brick  in  old  buildings.    It  does  the  same  with  soil  if  permitted 
to  circulate  freely  through  it.    The  agent  of  the  air  that  chiefly 
performs  this  work  is  called  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  this  gas . 
is  one  of  the  greatest  helpers  the  farmer  has  in  cariy-ing  on 


THE  SOIL  7 

his  work.  We  must  not  forget  that  in  soil  preparation  the 
air  is  just  as  important  as  any  of  the  tools  and  implements 
used  in  cultivation. 

If  the  soil  is  fertile  and  if  deep  plowing  has  always  been 
done,  good  crops  will  result,  other  conditions  being  favorable. 


Fig.  3.   Sloi'e  to  Water  shows  Soil  weathered  from 
Face  of  Cliff 

If,  however,  the  tillage  is  poor,  scanty  har\'ests  will  always 
result.  For  most  soils  a  two-horse  plow  is  necessary  to  break 
up  and  pulverize  the  land. 

A  shallow  soil  can  always  be  improved  by  properlv  deepen- 
ing it.  The  principle  of  greatest  importance  in  soil-preparation 


8        AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

is  the  gradual  deepening  of  the  soO  in  order  that  plant-roots 
mav  have  more  comfortable  homes.  If  tlie  farmer  has  been 
accustomed  to  plow  but  four  inches  deep,  he  should  adjust 
the  plow  so  as  to  turn  live  inches  at  the  next  plowing, 
then  sLx,  and  so  on  until  the  seed-bed  is  nine  or  ten  inches 
deep.  This  gradual  deepening  \\ill  not  injure  the  soil  but 
will  put  it  quickly  in  good  condition.     If  to  good  tillage 


Fig.  4.    Mixed  Grasses  gruwn  fur  Forage 

rotation  of  crops  be  added,  tlie  soil  will  become  more  fertile 
\\ith  each  succeeding  year. 

The  plow,  harrow,  and  roller  are  all  necessary  to  good 
tillage  and  to  a  proper  preparation  of  the  seed-bed.  The  soil 
must  be  made  compact  and  clods  of  all  sizes  must  be  crushed. 
Then  the  air  circulates  freely,  and  pa>ing  crops  are  the  rule 
and  not  the  exception. 

Tillage  does  these  things:  it  increases  the  plant-food 
supplv,  destroys  weeds,  and  influences  the  moisture  content 
of  the  soil. 


THE  SOIL  9 

EXERCISE 

1.  What  tools  are  used  in  tillage? 

2.  How  should  a  poor  and  shallow  soil  be  treated? 

3.  Whv  should  a  poor  and  shallow  soil  be  well  compacted  before 
sowing  the  crop  ? 

4.  Explain  the  value  of  a  circulation  of  air  in  the  soil. 

5.  What  causes  iron  to  rust? 

6.  Why  is  a  two-horse  turning-plow  better  than  a  one-horse  plow  ? 

7.  Where  will  clods  do  the  least  harm  —  on  top  of  the  soil  or  below 
the  surface  ? 

8.  Do  plant  roots  penetrate  clods  ? 

9.  Are  earthworms  a  benefit  or  an  injun,'  to  the  soil? 
10.  Name  three  things  that  tillage  does. 


SECTION   III.    THE  MOISTURE   OF  THE   SOIL 

Did  any  one  ever  explain  to  you  how  important  water  is 
to  the  soil,  or  tell  you  why  it  is  so  important .''  Often,  as  you 
know,  crops  entirely  fail  because  there  is  not  enough  water 
in  the  soil  for  the  plants  to  drink.  How  necessar}'  is  it,  then, 
that  the  soil  be  kept  in  the  best  possible  condition  to  catch 
and  hold  enough  water  to  carr\'  the  plant  through  dr}-,  hot 
spells  !  Perhaps  you  are  ready  to  ask,  "  How  does  the  mouth- 
less  plant  drink  its  stored-up  water  ?  " 

The  plant  gets  all  its  water  through  its  roots.  You  have 
seen  the  tiny  thread-like  roots  of  a  plant  spreading  all  about 
in  fine  soil;  they  are  down  in  the  ground  taking  up  plant 
food  and  water  for  the  stalk  and  leaves  above.  The  water, 
carrying  plant  food  with  it,  rises  in  a  simple  but  peculiar 
way  through  the  roots  and  stems. 

The  plants  use  the  food  for  building  new  tissue,  that  is, 
for  growth.  The  water  passes  out  through  the  leaves  into 
the  air.    When  the  summers  are  dry  and  hot  and  there  is 


lO 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


but  little  water  in  the  soil,  the  leaves  shrink  up.  This  is 
simpU'  a  method  they  have  of  keeping  the  water  from  pass- 
ing too  rapidly  off  into  the  air.  I  am  sure  you  have  seen 
the  corn  blades  all  shriveled  on  ver\-  hot  days.  This  shrink- 
age is  nature's  way  of  diminishing  the  current  of  water  that 
is  steadily  passing  through  the  plant. 

A  thrifty  farmer  will  tr)-  to  keep  his  soil  in  such  good  con- 
dition that  it  will  have  a  supply  of  water  in  it  for  growing 
crops  when  dr)-  and  hot  weather  comes.  He  can  do  this  by 
deep  plowing,  by  subsoiling,  by  add- 
ing any  kind  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil,  and  by  growing 
crops  that  can  be  tilled  frequently. 
The  soil  is  a  great  storehouse  for 
moisture.  After  the  clouds  have 
emptied  their  waters  into  this  store- 
house, the  water  of  the  soil  comes  to 
the  surface,  where  it  is  evaporated 
into  the  air.  The  water  comes  to  the 
surface  in  just  the  same  way  that  oil 
rises  in  a  lamp-wick.  This  rising  of 
the  water  is  called  capillarity. 
It  is  necessar)-  to  understand  what  is  meant  by  this  big 
word.  If  into  a  pan  of  water  you  dip  a  glass  tube,  the  water 
inside  the  tube  rises  above  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  pan. 
The  smaller  the  tube  the  higher  will  the  water  rise.  The 
greater  rise  inside  is  perhaps  due  to  the  fact  that  the  glass 
attracts  the  particles  of  water  more  than  the  particles  of  water 
attract  one  another.    Now  apply  this  principle  to  the  soil. 

The  soil  particles  have  small  spaces  between  them,  and  the 
spaces  act  just  as  the  tube  does.  When  the  water  at  the  sur- 
face is  carried  away  by  drying  winds  and  warmth,  the  water 


-^m^- 


Fig.  5.  Ax  Enlarged 
View  of  a  Section  of 
Moist  Soil,  showing 
Air  Spaces  and  Soil 
Particles 


12 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


deeper  in  the  soil  rises  through  the  soil  spaces.    In  this  way 
water  is  brought  from  its  soil  storehouse  as  plants  need  it. 

Of  course  when  the  underground  water  reaches  the  sur- 
face it  evaporates.  If  we  want  to  keep  it  for  our  crops,  we 
must  prepare  a  trap  to  hold  it.  Nature  has  shown  us  how  this 
can  be  done.  Pick  up  a  plank  as  it  lies  on  the  ground.  Under 
the  plank  the  soil  is  wet,  while  the  soil  not  covered  by  the 


Fig.  7.    Apparatus  for  testing  the  Holding  of  Water  by 
Different  Soils 

plank  is  dr}-.  Why  ?  Capillarit}-  brought  the  water  to  the  sur- 
face, and  the  plank,  b\-  keeping  away  wind  and  warmth,  acted 
as  a  trap  to  hold  the  moisture.  Now  of  course  a  farmer  can- 
not set  a  trap  of  planks  over  his  fields,  but  he  can  make  a 
trap  of  dry  earth,  and  that  will  do  just  as  well. 

When  a  crop  like  corn  or  cotton  or  potatoes  is  cultivated, 
the  fine,  loose  dirt  stirred  by  the  cultivating-plow  will  make 
a  mulch  that  ser\-es  to  keep  water  in  the  soil  in  the  same  way 


THE  SOIL 


13 


that  the  plank  kept  moisture  under  it.  The  mulch  also  helps 
to  absorb  the  rains  and  prevents  the  water  from  running  off 
the  surface.  Frequent  cultivation,  then,  is  one  of  the  best  pos- 
sible ways  of  saving  moisture.  Hence  the  farmer  who  most 
frequently  stirs  his  soil  in  the  growing  season,  and  especially 
in  seasons  of  drought,  reaps,  other  things  being  equal,  a  more 
abundant  harvest  than  if  tillage  were  neglected. 

EXERCISE 

1 .  Why  is  the  soil  wet  under  a  board  or  under  straw  ? 

2.  Will  a  soil  that  is  fine  and  compact  produce  better  crops  than  one 
that  is  loose  and  cloddy  ?    Why  ? 

3.  Since  the  water  which  a  plant  uses  comes  through  the  roots,  can 
the  morning  dew  afford  any  assistance  ? 

4.  Why  are  weeds  objectionable  in  a  growing  crop  ? 

5.  Why  does  the  farmer  cultivate  growing  com  and  cotton? 


SECTION  IV.    HOW  THE  WATER  RISES  IX  THE  SOIL 

When  the  hot.  dn.-  days  of  summer  come,  the  soil  depends 
upon  the  subsoil,  or  undersoil,  for  the  moisture  that  it  must 
furnish  its  growing  plants.  The  water  was  stored  in  the 
soil  during  the  fall, 
winter,  and  spring 
months  when  there 
was  plenty  of  rain. 
If  you  dig  down  into 
the  soil  when  every- 
thing is  dr\-  and  hot, 
you  will  soon  reach 
a  cool,  moist  under- 
soil.    The   moisture 

increases  as  vou  dig 

J  .  ',  .,  Fig.  8.    Using  Lamp-Chimnevs  to  show 

deeper  mto  the  soil.  ^„^  c^  ^^  „.  ^ 

^  THE  Rise  of  u  ater  in  Soil 


14  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Now  the  roots  of  plants  go  down  into  the  soil  for  this 
moisture,  because  they  need  the  water  to  carr\-  the  plant 
food  up  into  the  stems  and  leaves. 

You  can  see  how  the  water  rises  in  the  soil  by  performing 
a  simple  experiment. 

EXPERIMENT 

Take  a  lamp-chimney  and  fill  it  with  fine,  drj'  dirt.  The  dirt  from  a 
road  or  a  field  will  do.  Tie  over  the  smaller  end  of  the  lamp-chimney  a  piece 
of  cloth  or  a  pocket  handkerchief,  and  place  this  end  in  a  shallow  pan 
of  water.  If  the  soil  in  the  lamp-chimney  is  clay  and  well  packed,  the 
water  will  quickly  rise  to  the  top. 

By  filling  three  or  four  lamp-chimneys  with  as  many  different  soils, 
the  pupil  will  see  that  the  water  rises  more  slowly  in  some  than  in 
others. 

Now  take  the  water  pan  away,  and  the  water  in  the  lamp-chimneys 
will  gradually  evaporate.  Study  for  a  few  days  the  effect  of  evaporation 
on  the  several  soils. 


SECTION  V.    DRAINING   THE   SOIL 

A  wise  man  was  once  asked,  "What  is  the  most  valuable 
improvement  ever  made  in  agriculture?"  He  answered, 
"  Drainage."  Often  soils  unfit  for  crop-production  because 
they  contain  too  much  water  are  by  drainage  rendered  the 
most  valuable  of  farming  lands. 

Drainage  benefits  land  in  the  following  ways  : 

1.  It  deepens  the  subsoil  by  removing  unnecessary  water 
from  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles.  This  admits  air. 
Then  the  oxygen  which  is  in  the  air,  by  aiding  decay,  pre- 
pares plant  food  for  vegetation. 

2.  It  makes  the  surface  soil,  or  topsoil,  deeper.  It  stands 
to  reason  that  the  deeper  the  soil  the  more  plant  food  be- 
comes available  for  plant  use. 


THE  SOIL 


15 


3.  It  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil.    Wet  soil  is  sticky. 
Drainage  makes  this  sticky  soil  crumble  and  fall  apart. 

4.  It  prevents  \\-ashing. 

5.  It  increases  the  porosit)-  of  soils  and  permits  roots  to 
go  deeper  into  the  soil  for  food  and  moisture. 

6.  It  increases  the  warmth  of  the  soil. 

7.  It  oermits  earlier  working  in  spring  and  after  rains. 


Fig.  9.    Laying  .\  Tile  Dr.\ix 


8.  It  favors  the  growth  of  germs  which  change  the 
unavailable  nitrogen  of  the  soil  into  nitrates ;  that  is,  into 
the  form  of  nitrogen  most  useful  to  plants. 

9.  It  enables  plants  to  resist  drought  better  because  the 
roots  go  into  the  ground  deeper  early  in  the  season. 

A  soil  that  is  hard  and  wet  will  not  grow  good  crops. 
The  nitrogen-gathering  crops  will  store  the  greatest  quan- 
tit}-  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  when  the  soil  is  open  to  the  free 


i6 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


circulation  of  the  air.  These  \:aluable  crops  cannot  do  this 
when  the  soil  is  wet  and  cold. 

Sandy  soils  vi"ith  sand}'  subsoils  do  not  often  need 
drainage ;  such  soils  are  natiu^ally  drained.  With  claj'  soils 
it  is  different.  It  is  ven*  important  to  remove  the  stagnant 
water  in  them  and  to  let  the  air  in. 

\\'hen  land  has  been  properly  drained  the  other  steps  in 
improvement  are  easily  taken.   After  soil  has  been  dried  and 


Fig.  io.   A  Tile  ix  Posmox 


mellowed  by  proper  drainage,  then  commercial  fertilizers, 
barnyard  manure,  cowpeas,  and  clover  can  most  readily  do 
their  great  work  of  impro\ing  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  of 
making  it  fitter  for  plant  growth. 

Tile  Drains.  Tile  drains  are  the  best  and  cheapest  that 
can  be  used.  It  would  not  be  too  strong  to  say  that  drain- 
ing by  tiles  is  the  most  perfect  drainage.  Thousands  of 
practical  tests  in  this  countn,^  have  proved  the  superiorit\-  of 
tile  draining  for  the  foUovi-ing  reasons  : 


THE  SOIL  17 

1 .  Good  tile  drains  properly  laid  last  for  years  and  do  not 
fill  up. 

2.  They  furnish  the  cheapest  possible  means  of  removing 
too  much  water  from  the  soil. 

3.  They  are  out  of  reach  of  all  cultivating  tools. 

4.  Surface  water  in  filtering  through  the  tiles  leaves  its 
nutritious  elements  for  plant  growth. 

EXPERIMENTS 

To  show  the  Efiect  of  Drainage.  Take  two  tomato  cans  and  fill 
both  with  the  same  kind  of  soil.  Punch  several  holes  in  the  bottom 
of  one  to  drain  the  soil  above  and  to  admit  air  circulation.  Leave 
the  other  unpunctured.  Plant  seeds  of  any  kind  in  both  cans  and 
keep  in  a  warm  place.  Add  every  third  day  equal  quantities  of  water. 
Let  seeds  grow  in  both  cans  and  observe  the  difference  in  growth  for 
two  or  three  weeks. 

To  show  the  Effect  of  Air  in  Soils.  Take  two  tomato  cans ;  fill 
one  with  soil  that  is  loose  and  warm,  and  the  other  \\-ith  wet  clay  or 
muck  from  a  swampy  field.  Plant  a  few  seeds  of  the  same  kind  in  each 
and  observe  how  much  better  the  dr}*,  warm,  open  soil  is  for  growing 
farm  crops. 

SECTION  VI.    IMPROVING   THE   SOIL 

We  hear  a  great  deal  about  the  exhaustion  or  wearing  out 
of  the  soil.  Many  uncomfortable  people  are  always  declaring 
that  our  lands  will  no  longer  produce  profitable  crops,  and 
hence  that  farming  will  no  longer  pav. 

Now  it  is  true,  unfortunately,  that  much  land  has  been 
robbed  of  its  fertility,  and,  because  this  is  true,  we  should 
be  most  deeply  interested  in  ever)thing  that  leads  to  the 
improvement  of  our  soils. 

When  our  countn,'  was  first  discovered  and  trees  were 
growing  ever\where,  we  had  virgin  soils,  or  new  soils  that 


iS 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


xeae  rich  and  jHoductive  because  they  were  filled  with 
vegetable  matter  and  plant  food.  There  are  not  many 
virgin  soils  now  because  the  trees  have  been  cut  from  the 
best  lands,  and  these  lands  have  been  :^rmed  so  carelessly 
that  the  vegetable  matter  and  available  plant  f  c-.od  have  been 


laigeH"  used  up.  Xow  that  fresh  land  is  scarce  it  is  ver\' 
oecessaiy  to  restore  fertility'  to  these  exhausted  lands.  \\'hat 
are  some  of  the  wa}-s  in  which  this  can  be  done  ? 

There  are  several  things  to  be  done  in  tning  to  reclaim 
wMn-out  land.  One  of  the  first  of  these  is  to  till  the  land 
wdL  Many  of  you  may  have  heard  the  stor\'  of  the  dying 
father  who  called  his  sons  about  him  and  whispered  feebly, 
"  Thoe  is  great  treasure  hidden  in  the  garden."  The  sons 
could  hardly  wait  to  bun-  their  dead  father  before,  thud, 


THE  SOIL  19 

thud,  thud,  their  picks  were  going  in  the  garden.  Day  after 
day  they  dug ;  they  dug  deep ;  they  dug  wide.  Not  a  foot 
of  the  crop-worn  garden  escaped  the  probing  of  the  pick  as 
the  sons  feverishly  searched  for  the  expected  treasure.  But 
no  treasure  was  found.    Their  work  seemed  entirely  useless. 


Fig.  12.    Increasing  the  Prodictive  Power  of  the  Soil 
Second  crop  of  cowpeas  on  old,  abandoned  land 

"  Let  US  not  lose  ever\'  whit  of  our  labor  ;  let  us  plant  diis 
pick-scarred  garden,"  said  the  eldest.  So  the  garden  was 
planted.  In  the  fall  the  hitherto  neglected  garden  yielded 
a  har\-est  so  bountiful,  so  unexpected,  that  the  meaning 
of  their  father's  words  dawned  upon  them.  "  Truly,"  they 
said,  "  a  treasure  was  hidden  there.  Let  us  seek  it  in  all 
our  fields." 


20  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

The  ston^  applies  as  well  to-day  as  it  did  when  it  was  first 
told.  Thorough  culture  of  the  soil,  frequent  and  intelligent 
tillage  —  these  are  the  foundations  of  soil-restoration. 

Along  with  good  tillage  must  go  crop-rotation  and  good 
drainage.  A  supply  of  organic  matter  will  prevent  hea\y 
rains  from  washing  the  soil  and  carr}'ing  away  plant  food. 
Drainage  will  aid  good  tillage  in  allowing  air  to  circulate 
between  the  soil  particles  and  in  arranging  plant  food  so 
that  plants  can  use  it. 

But  we  must  add  humus,  or  vegetable  matter,  to  the  soil. 
You  remember  that  the  virgin  soils  contained  a  great  deal 
of  vegetable  matter  and  plant  food,  but  by  the  continuous 
growing  of  crops  like  wheat,  corn,  and  cotton,  and  by  con- 
stant shallow  tillage,  both  humus  and  plant  food  ha\e  been 
used  up.  Consequently  much  of  our  cultivated  soil  to-day 
is  hard  and  dead. 

There  are  three  ways  of  adding  humus  and  plant  food  to 
this  lifeless  land  :  the  first  way  is  to  appl}'  barnyard  manure 
(to  adopt  this  method  means  that  livestock  raising  must  be 
a  part  of  all  farming) ;  the  second  way  is  to  adopt  rotation 
of  crops,  and  frequently  to  plow  under  crops  like  clover  and 
cowpeas  ;  the  third  way  is  to  apply  commercial  fertilizers. 

To  summarize  :  if  we  want  to  make  our  soil  better  \ear 
by  year,  we  must  cultivate  well,  drain  well,  and  m  the  most 
economical  way  add  humus  and  plant  food. 

EXPERIMENT 

Select  a  small  area  of  ground  at  your  home  and  di\-ide  it  into  four 
sections,  as  shown  in  the  following  sketch : 

On  Section  A  apply  barnyard  manure ;  on  Section  B  apply  com- 
mercial fertilizers ;  on  Section  C  applj?  nothing,  but  till  well :  on 
Section  D  apply  nothing,  and  till  verj?  poorly. 


THE  SOIL 


21 


A,  B,  and  C  should  all  be  thoroughly  plowed  and  harrowed.  Then 
add  barnyard  manure  to  .4.  commercial  fertilizers  to  B,  and  harrow  A, 
B,  and  C  at  least  four  times  until  the  soil 
is  mellow  and  fine.  D  will  most  likely 
be  cloddy,  like  many  fields  that  we  often 
see.  Now  plant  on  each  plat  some  crop 
like  cotton,  corn,  or  wheat.  When  the 
plats  are  ready  to  harvest,  measure  the 
yield  of  each  and  determine  whether 
the  increased  yield  of  the  best  plats  has 
paid  for  the  outlay  for  tillage  and 
manure.  The  pupil  will  be  much  inter- 
ested in  the  results  obtained  from  the 
first  crop. 

Now  follow  a  system  of  crop-rotation 
on  the  plats.  Clover  can  follow  corn  or 
cotton  or  wheat ;  and  cowpeas,  wheat. 
Then   determine  the  yield   of  each  plat 

for  the  second  crop.    By  following  these  plats  for  several  years,  and  in- 
creasing the  number,  the  pupils  will  learn  many  things  of  greatest  value. 


.1 

B 

c 

1) 

Fk; 


SECTION   VII.    MANURING   THE   SOIL 

In  the  early  days  of  our  histor)-,  when  the  soil  was  new 
and  rich,  we  were  not  compelled  to  use  large  amounts 
of  manures  and  fertilizers.  Yet  our  histories  speak  of 
an  Indian  named  Squanto  who  came  into  one  of  the 
New  England  colonies  and  showed  the  first  settlers  how, 
by  putting  a  fish  in  each  hill  of  corn,  they  could  obtain 
larger  yields. 

If  people  in  those  days,  with  new  and  fertile  soils,  could 
use  manures  profitably,  how  much  niore  ought  we  to  use 
them  in  our  time,  when  soils  have  lost  their  virgin  fertility, 
and  when  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  has  been  exhausted  by 
\ears  and  years  of  cropping ! 


22 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


To  sell  year  after  year  all  the  produce  grown  on  land  is 
a  sure  way  to  ruin  it.  If,  for  example,  the  richest  land 
is  planted  eveiy  year  in  com,  and  no  stable  or  farm}^ard 
manure  or  other  fertilizer  returned  to  the  soil,  the  land  so 
treated  will  of  course  soon  become  too  poor  to  grow  anj^  crop. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  clover  or  alfaLEa  or  com  or  cotton-seed 
meal  is  fed  to  stock,  and  the  manure  from  the  stock  returned 
to  the  soil,  the  land  will  be  kept  rich.    Hence  those  farmers 

who  do  not  sell  such  raw 
products  as  cotton,  com, 
wheat,  oats,  and  clover,  but 
who  market  articles  made 
from  these  raw  products, 
find  it  easier  to  keep  their 
land  fertile.  For  illustra- 
tion :  if  instead  of  selling 
hay,  farmers  feed  it  to 
sheep  and  sell  meat  and 
wool  4  if  instead  of  sell- 
ing cotton  seed,  they  feed 
its  meal  to  cows,  and  seU  milk  and  butter;  if  instead  of  sell- 
ing stover,  they  feed  it  to  beef  cattle,  they  get  a  good  price 
for  products  and  in  addition  have  all  themanure  needed  to 
keep  their  land  productive  and  increase  its  \^ue  each  3ear. 
If  we  wish  to  keep  up  the  ietbhty  of  our  lands  we  should 
not  allow  anjthing  to  be  lost  from  our  farms.  All  the  ma- 
nures, straw,  roots,  stubble,  healthy  vines  —  in  fact  eventhing 
decomposable  —  should  be  plowed  imder  or  used  as  a  top- 
dressing.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  in  storing  manure. 
It  should  be  watchfully  protected  from  sun  and  rain.  If  a 
farmer  has  no  shed  under  which  to  keep  his  manure,  he 
should  scatter  it  on  his  fields  as  fast  as  it  is  made. 


Fig.  14.   RjELATiox  of  HrMis  to 
Growth  of  Cors 

I,  dlay  siAsofl ;  2,  same,  wbb  feitOiaer ; 
3,  gami»^  widi  hiimiin 


THE  SOIL 


23 


He  should  understand  also  that  liquid  manure  is  of  more 
value  than  solid,  because  that  important  plant  food,  nitrogen, 
is  found  almost  wholly  in  the  liquid  portion.  Some  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  considerable  amounts  of  the  potash  are 
also  found  in  the  liquid  manure.   Hence  economy  requires  that 


P'iG.  15.  The  Cotton  Plant  with  and  without  Food 

In  left  top  pot,  no  plant  food :  in  left  bottom  pot,  plant  food  scant)- ;  in  both  right 
pots,  all  elements  of  plant  food  present 

none  of  this  escape  either  by  leakage  or  b\-  fermentation. 
Sometimes  one  can  detect  the  smell  of  ammonia  in  the  stable. 
This  ammonia  is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  liquid 
manure,  and  its  loss  should  be  checked  by  sprinkling  some 
floats,  acid  phosphate,  or  muck  over  the  stable  floor. 


24  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Manv  farmers  find  it  desirable  to  buy  fertilizers  to  use 
with  the  manure  made  on  the  farm.  In  this  case  it  is 
helpful  to  understand  the  composition,  source,  and  availability 
of  the  various  substances  composing  commercial  fertilizers. 
The  three  most  valuable  things  in  commercial  fertilizers  are 
nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid. 

The  nitrogen  is  obtained  from  (i)  nitrate  of  soda  mined 
in  Chile,  (2)  ammonium  sulphate,  a  by-product  of  the  gas 
works,  (3)  dried  blood  and  other  by-products  of  the  slaughter- 
houses, and  (4)  cotton-seed  meal.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  soluble 
in  water  and  may  therefore  be  washed  away  before  being 
used  by  plants.  For  this  reason  it  should  be  applied  in  small 
quantities  and  at  intervals  of  a  few  weeks. 

Potash  is  obtained  in  Germany,  where  it  is  found  in  sev- 
eral forms.  It  is  put  on  the  market  as  muriate  of  potash, 
sulphate  of  potash,  kainite,  which  contains  salt  as  an  im- 
puritv',  and  in  other  impure  forms.  Potash  is  found  also  in 
unhachcd  wood  ashes. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  various  rocks  of  Tennessee, 
Florida,  and  South  Carolina,  and  also  to  a  large  extent  in 
bones.  The  rocks  or  bones  are  usually  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid.  This  treatment  changes  the  phosphoric  acid  into  a 
form  ready  for  plant  use. 

These  three  kinds  of  plant  food  are  ordinaril}"  all  that  we 
need  to  supply.  In  some  cases,  however,  lime  has  to  be 
added.  Besides  being  a  plant  food  itself,  lime  helps  most 
soils  by  impro^■ing  the  structure  of  the  grains  ;  by  sweetening 
the  soil,  thereby  aiding  the  little  li^•ing  germs  called  bacteria; 
by  hastening  the  decay  of  organic  matter ;  and  b\-  setting 
free  the  potash  that  is  locked  up  in  the  soil. 


CHAPTER   II 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT 


SECTIOxN  VIII.    ROOTS 

You  have  perhaps  observed  the  regularity  of  arrangement 
in  the  twigs  and  branches  of  trees.  Now  pull  up  the  roots  of  a 
plant,  as,  for  example,  sheep  sorrel,  J  imson  weed,  or  some  other 
plant.  Note  the  branching  of  the  roots. 
In  these  there  is  no  such  regularity  as 
is  seen  in  the  twig.  Trace  the  rootlets  to 
their  finest  tips.  How  small,  slender, 
and  delicate  they  are  !  Still  we  do  not 
see  the  finest  of  them,  for  in  taking  the 
plant  from  the  ground  we  tore  the  most 
delicate  away.  In  order  to  see  the  real 
construction  of  a  root  we  must  grow 
one  so  that  we  may  examine  it  unin- 
jured. To  do  this,  sprout  some  oats  in 
a  germinator  or  in  any  box  in  which 
one  glass  side  has  been  arranged  and 
allow  the  oats  to  grow  till  the}-  are  two  or 
more  inches  high.  Now  examine  the 
roots  and  you  will  see  very  fine  hairs, 
similar  to  those  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  forming 
a  fuzz  over  the  surface  of  the  roots  near  the  tips.  This 
fuzz  is  made  of  small  hairs  standing  so  close  together  that 
there  are  often  as  many  as  38,200  on  a  single  square  inch. 

25 


Fig.  16.    Root-Hairs 
ON  A  Radish 


26 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


/ 


Fig.  17.   A  Slicx  of 
A  Root 


Fig.  17  shows  how  a  root  looks  when  it  has  been  cut  cross- 
wise into  what  is  known  as  a  cross  section.  The  figure  is 
much  increased  in  size.  You  can  see 
how  the  root-hairs  extend  from  the 
root  in  every  direction.  Fig.  18  shows 
a  single  root-hair  very  greatl)-  en- 
krged,  with  particles  of  sand  stick- 
ing to  it. 

These  hairs  are  the  feeding-organs 

of  the  roots,  and  the\'  are  formed 

only  near  the  tips  of  the  finest  roots. 

You  see  that  the  large,  coarse  roots 

that  3'ou  are  familiar  with  have  noth- 

H«biT  magnified  ing  to  do  with  absorbing  plant  food 

from  the  soil.    They  serve  merely  to  conduct  the  sap  and 

nourishment  from  the  root-hairs  to  the  tree. 

WTien  you  apply  manure  or  other  fertilizer  to  a  tree, 
remember  that  it  is  far  better  to  supply  the 
fertilizer  to  the  roots  that  are  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  trunk,  for  such  roots  are  the 
real  feeders.  The  plant  food  in  the  manure 
soaks  into  the  soil  and  immediately  reaches 
the  root-hairs.  You  can  understand  this 
better  b\-  studxing  the  distribution  of  the 
roots  of  an  orchard  tree,  shown  in  Fig.  19. 
There  you  can  see  that  the  fine  tips  are  found 
at  a  long  distance  from  the  main  trunk. 

You  can  now  readily  see  why  it  is  that 
plants   usually  wilt   when   they  are   trans- 
planted.   The   fine,  dehcate   root-hairs  are 
then  broken  oif,  and  the  plant  can  but  poorly  keep  up  its 
food  aiKi  water  supply  untQ  new  hairs  have  been  formed. 


Fig.  iS.  A  Root- 
ELaik  with  Par- 
tici.es  of    Soil 

STICKIXG    TO     it 


THE  SOIL  AXD  THE  PLANT 


27 


While  these  are  forming,  water  has  been  evaporating  from 
the  leaves,  and  consequently  the  plant  does  not  get  enough 
moisture  and  therefore  droops. 

Would  you  not  conclude  that  it  is  ver\-  poor  farming  to 
till  deeply  anv  crop  after  the  roots  have  extended  between 


Clay  and  Gravel 
Groundwater 


Fig.  19.   UisTRiBiTioN  of  Apple-Trek  Roots 

the  rows  far  enough  to  be  cut  by  the  plow  or  cultivator.?  In 
cultivating  between  corn  rows,  for  example,  if  you  find  that 
you  are  disturbing  fine  roots,  you  may  be  sure  that  you  are 
breaking  off  millions  of  root-hairs  from  each  plant  and  hence 
are  doing  harm  rather  than  good.  Fig.  20  shows  how  the 
roots  from  one  com  row  intertangle  with  those  of  another. 
You  see  at  a  glance  how  many  of  these  roots  would  be 


2S 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


destroyed  by  deep  culri^"ation.  Stirring  the  upper  inch  of  soil 
when  the  plants  are  well  grovm  is  sufficient  tillage  and  does 
no  injun-  to  the  roots. 

A  deep  soil  is  much  better  than 
a  shallow  !^'-:],  ?■-  :''r^  ^^erth  rr:akes  "'■74'- 


Fig.  20. 


Row  TO  Row 


h  '   -:       :  sier  for  the  roots 

::.  c.:^..  wci^  ;^^d.  Fig.  21  illus- 
tiates  well  how  far  down  into  the 
soil  the  alfalfa  roots  go. 

EXERCISE 

Dig  up  the  roots  of  several  cuhivaied 
plants  and  tsieeds  and  compare  dieni.  Do 
Tou  find  smne  that  are  fine  or  filKVius? 
scHnelfle^y  like  the  carrot?  ThedanddioD 

is  a  good  example  of  a  tap-rooL  Tap-roots  are  deep  feeders.  Examine 
veiy  carefuMy  the  roots  of  a  medium-sized  com  plant.  Sift  the  dirt  away 
gently  so  as  to  loosen  as  few  roots  as  possible.  How  do  the  roots  com- 
pare in  area  with  the  part  above  the  ground?  Try  to  trace  a  single  root 
of  the  corn  plant  bxnm  the  stalk  to  its  ven-  tip.  How  long  are  the  roots  of 
mature  plants?  Are  they  deep  <m-  shallow  feeders?  Germinate  some  oats 
or  beans  in  a  glass^ded  box,  as  suggested,  and  obsene  the  root-hairs. 


Fig.  21 
Alf.^ifa  Root 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT 


29 


SECTION  IX.    HOW  THE  PLANT  FEEDS   FROM 
THE  SOIL 

Plants  receive  tlicir  nourishment  from  two  sources  — 
from  the  air  and  from  the  soil.  The  soil  food,  or  mineral 
food,  dissolved  in  water,  must  reach  the  plant  through  the 
root-hairs  with  which  all  plants  are  provided  in  great  num- 
bers. Each  of  these  hairs  may  be  compared  to  a  finger  reach- 
ing among  the  particles  of  earth  for  food  and  water.  If  we 
examine  the  root-hairs  ever  so  closely, 
we  find  no  holes,  or  openings,  in  them. 
It  is  evident,  then,  that  no  solid  particles 
can  enter  the  root-hairs,  but  that  all 
food  must  pass  into  the  root  in  solution. 

An  experiment  just  here  will  help  us 
to  understand  how  a  root  feeds. 

EXPERIMENT 

Secure  a  narrow  glass  tube  like  the  one  in 
Fig.  22.  If  you  cannot  get  a  tube,  a  narrow, 
straight  lamp-chimney  will,  with  a  little  care,  do 
nearly  as  well.  From  a  bladder  made  soft  by 
soaking,  cut  a  piece  large  enough  to  cover  the 
end  of  the  tube  or  chimney  and  to  hang  over 
a  little  all  around.  Make  the  piece  of  bladder 
secure  to  the  end  of  the  tube  by  wrapping  tightly  with  a  waxed  thread, 
as  at  B.  Partly  fill  the  tube  with  molasses  (or  it  may  be  easier  in  case 
you  use  a  narrow  tube  to  fill  it  before  attaching  the  bladder).  Put  the 
tube  into  a  jar  or  bottle  of  water  so  placed  that  the  level  of  the  molasses 
inside  and  the  water  outside  w-ill  be  the  same.  Fasten  the  tube  in  this 
position  and  observe  it  frequently  for  three  or  four  hours.  At  the  end 
of  the  time  you  should  find  that  the  molasses  in  the  tube  has  risen  above 
the  level  of  the  liquid  outside.  It  may  even  overflow  at  the  top.  If  you 
use  the  lamp-chimney  the  rise  will  not  be  so  clearly  seen,  since  a  greater 
volume  is  required  to  fill  the  space  in  the  chimney.    This  increase  in 


Fig.  22.    Experiment 

TO  SHOW  HOW  Roots 

TAKE  ur  Food 


30  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

the  cootoits  of  the  tube  is  due  to  die  entrance  of  water  from  the  outside. 
The  water  has  passed  through  the  thin  bladder,  or  memlHane,  and  has 
come  to  occupy  space  in  the  tube.  Th»e  is  also  a  passage  the  other 
way,  but  the  molasses  can  pass  through  the  bladder  membrane  so 
slowhr  that  the  passage  is  scarody  noticeable.  There  are  no  holes,  or 
opemagi.  in  die  memlHane,  but  still  there  is  a  free  passage  of  liquids  in 
both  directions,  although  the  nK»e  heavfly  laden  solud<m  must  move 
mme  slowly. 

A  root-hair  acts  in  much  the  same  \ray  as  the  tube  in  our 
experiment,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  so  made  as  to  allow 
certain  substances  to  pass  in  only  one  direction,  that  is,  toward 
the  inside.  The  outside  of  the  nx>t-hair  is  bathed  in  solutions 
rich  in  nourishment.  The  nourishment  passes  from  the  out- 
side to  the  inside  through  the  deUcate  membrane  of  the  root- 
hair.  Thus  does  food  enter  the  plant-root.  From  the  root-hairs, 
foods  are  carried  to  the  inside  of  the  rooL 

From  diis  you  can  see  how  important  it  is  for  a  plant  to 
have  fine,  loose  soil  for  its  root-hairs ;  also  how  necessai}-  is 
the  water  in  the  soil,  since  the  food  can  be  used  onl}-  when 
it  is  dissolved  in  water. 

This  passage  of  liquids  from  one  side  of  a  membrane  to 
another  is  called  osntosis.  It  has  man}'  uses  in  the  plant 
kingdom.    We  sa}'  a  root  takes  nourishment  b\'  osmosis. 

SECTION  X-   ROOT-TL'BERCLES 

Tubercle  is  a  big  word,  but  \ou  ought  to  know  how  to  pro- 
noimce  it  and  what  is  meant  b\-  root-tubercles.  We  are  going 
to  tell  you  what  a  root-tubercle  is  and  somrthing  about  its 
importance  to  agriculture.  WTien  wu  have  learned  this,  we 
are  sure  you  will  want  to  examine  some  plants  for  5"ourself 
in  order  that  you  may  see  just  what  tubercles  look  like  on 
a  real  root. 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT 


31 


Root-tubercles  do  not  form  on  all  kinds  of  plants  that 
farmers  grow.  They  are  formed  only  on  those  kinds  that 
botanists  call  hginucs.  The  clovers,  cowpeas,  vetches,  soy 
beans,  and  alfalfa  are  all  legumes.  The  tubercles  are  little 
knotty,  wart-like  growths  on  the  roots  of  the  plants  just 
named.  These  tubercles  are  caused  by  tiny  forms  of  life 
called,  as  you  perhaps  already  know,  bacteria,  or  germs. 


Fig.  23.   TiBERCLES  on  Clover  Roots 

The  specimen  at  the  right  was  grown  in  soU  inoculated  with  soil  from  an  old  clover 
field.    The  one  at  the  left  was  grown  in  soil  not  inoculated 

Instead  of  living  in  nests  in  trees  like  birds  or  in  the 
ground  like  moles  and  worms,  these  tiny  germs,  less  than 
one  twenty-fi\e  thousandth  of  an  inch  long,  make  their  homes 
on  the  roots  of  legumes.  Nestling  snugly  together,  they  live, 
grow,  and  multiply  in  their  sunless  homes.  Through  their 
activit}-  the  soil  is  enriched  by  the  addition  of  much  nitro- 
gen from  the  air.    They  are  the  good  fairies  of  the  farmer, 


32 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGINNERS 


and  no  magician's  wand  ever  blessed  a  land  so  much  as  these 
im-isible  folk  bless  the  land  that  they  live  in. 

Just  as  bees  gather  hone\'  from  the  flowers  and  carr}-  it  to 
the  hives,  where  they  prepare  it  for  their  own  future  use  and 
for  the  use  of  others,  so  do  these  root-tubercles  gather  nitro- 
gen from  the  air  and  fix  it  in  their  root  honies,  where  it  can 

be  used  by  other  crops. 
In  the  earlier  pages 
of  this  book  }-ou  were 
told  something  about 
the  food  of  plants.  One 
of  the  main  elements 
of  plant  food,  perhaps 
you  remember,  is  nitro- 
gen. Just  as  soon  as 
the  roots  of  the  legu- 
minous plants  begin  to 
push  down  into  the  soil, 
the  bacteria,  or  germs 
that  make  the  tuber- 
cles, begin  to  build  their 
homes  on  the  roots, 
and  in  so  doing  they 
add  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  You  now  see  the  importance  of  grow- 
ing such  crops  as  peas  and  clover  on  your  land,  for  b\-  their 
tubercles  you  can  constantly  add  plant  food  to  the  soil.  Xow 
this  much-needed  nitrogen  is  the  most  costly  part  of  the  fer- 
tilizers that  farmers  buy  every  year.  If  even^  farmer,  then, 
would  grow  these  tubercle-bearing  crops,  he  would  rapidly 
add  to  the  richness  of  his  land  and  at  the  same  time  escape 
the  necessit}'  of  buying  so  much  expensive  fertilizer. 


Mi' 


Fig.  24.   Soy  Beans  and  Cowpeas, 
Two  Great  Soil-Improvers 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT  33 

EXPERIMENT 

Take  a  spade  or  shovel  and  dig  carefully  around  the  roots  of  a  cowpea 
and  a  clover  plant ;  loosen  the  earth  thoroughly  and  then  pull  the  plants 
up,  being  careful  not  to  break  off  any  of  the  roots.  Now  wash  the  roots, 
and  after  they  become  dry  count  the  nodules,  or  tubercles,  on  them. 
Observe  the  difference  in  size.  How  are  they  arranged.''  Do  all  legumi- 
nous plants  have  equal  numbers  of  nodules?  How  do  these  nodules 
help  the  farmer.'' 

SECTION  XL    THE  ROTATION   OF  CROPS 

Doubtless  you  know  what  is  meant  by  rotation,  for  your 
teacher  has  explained  to  you  already  how  the  earth  rotates, 
or  turns,  on  its  axis  and  revolves  around  the  sun.  When  we 
speak  of  crop-rotation  we  mean  not  only  that  the  same  crop 
should  not  be  planted  on  the  same  land  for  two  successive  years 
but  that  crops  should  follow  one  another  in  a  regular  order. 

Many  farmers  do  not  follow  a  system  of  farming  that  in- 
volves a  change  of  crops.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the 
same  fields  are  planted  to  corn  or  wheat  or  cotton  year  after 
year.  This  is  not  a  good  practice  and  sooner  or  later  will 
wear  out  the  soil  completely,  because  the  soil-elements  that 
furnish  the  food  of  that  constant  crop  are  soon  exhausted 
and  good  crop-production  is  no  longer  possible. 

Why  is  crop-rotation  so  necessary  ?  There  are  different 
kinds  of  plant  food  in  the  soil.  If  any  one  of  these  is  used 
up,  the  soil  of  course  loses  its  power  to  feed  plants  properly. 
Now  each  crop  uses  more  of  some  of  the  different  kinds 
of  foods  than  others  do,  just  as  you  like  some  kinds  of  food 
better  than  others.  But  the  crop  cannot,  as  you  can,  learn 
to  use  the  kinds  of  food  it  does  not  like  ;  it  must  use  the 
kind  that  nature  fitted  it  to  use.  Not  only  do  different  crops 
feed  upon  different  soil  foods,  but  they  use  different  quan- 
tities of  these  foods. 


34  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 

Now  if  a  farmer  plant  the  same  crop  in  the  same  field 
each  year,  that  crop  soon  uses  up  all  of  the  available  plant 
food  that  it  likes.  Hence  the  soil  can  no  longer  properly 
nourish  the  crop  that  has  been  year  by  year  robbing  it.  If 
that  crop  is  to  be  successfully  grown  again  on  the  land, 
the  exhausted  element  must  be  restored. 

This  can  be  done  in  two  ways :  first,  by  finding  out  what 
element  has  here  been  exhausted,  and  then  restoring  this 


Fig.  25.   Gr.\ss  following  Corn 

element  by  means  either  of  commercial  fertilizers  or  manure  ; 
second,  b)-  planting  on  the  land  crops  that  feed  on  different 
food  and  that  will  allow  or  assist  kind  Mother  Nature  "  to 
repair  her  waste  places."  An  illustration  may  help  you  to 
remember  this  fact.  Nitrogen  is,  as  already  explained,  one  of 
the  commonest  plant  foods.  It  may  almost  be  called  plant 
bread.  The  wheat  crop  uses  up  a  good  deal  of  nitrogen. 
Suppose  a  field  were  planted  in  wheat  year  after  year.  ]\Iost 
of  the  a\:ailable  nitrogen  would  be  taken  out  of  the  soil  after 


THE  SOIL  ANJ)    THE  PLANT 


35 


a  while,  and  a  new  wheat  erop,  If  planted  on  the  field,  would 
not  ^et  enough  of  its  proper  food  to  yield  a  paying'  harvest. 
This  same  land,  however,  that  could  not  grow  wheat  could 
produce  other  crops  that  do  not  require  so  much  nitrogen. 
For  example,  it  could  grow  cowpeas.  Cowpeas,  aided  by 
their  root-tubercles,  are  able  to  gather  from  the  air  a  great 


Fig.  26.   Cowpeas  and  Corn  —  August 

part  of  the  nitrogen  needed  for  their  growth.  Thus  a  good 
crop  of  peas  can  be  obtained  even  if  there  is  little  available 
nitrogen  in  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand  wheat  and  corn  and 
cotton  canncjt  use  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air,  and  they  suffer 
if  there  is  an  insufflcient  quantity  present  in  the  soil ;  hence 
the  necessity  of  growing  legumes  to  supply  what  is  lacking. 
Let  us  now  see  how  easily  plant  food  may  be  sa\-ed  by 
the  rotation  of  crops. 


36 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGINNERS 


If  you  sow  wheat  in  the  autumn  it  is  ready  to  be  han-ested 
in  time  for  planting  cowpeas.  Plow  or  disk  the  wheat  stubble, 
and  sow  the  same  field  to  cowpeas.  If  the  wheat  crop  has 
exhausted  the  gi'eater  part  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil,  it  makes 
no  difference  to  the  cowpea  ;  for  the  cowpea  will  get  its  nitro- 
gen from  the  air  and  not  only  provide  for  its  own  gro\Uh 


Fig. 


CliWI'EAS    and    C(.)K.N  OCTOKLK 


but  \\-ill  leave  quantities  of  nitrogen  in  the  queer  nodules  of 
its  roots  for  the  crops  coming  after  it  in  the  rotation. 

If  com  be  planted,  there  should  be  a  rotation  in  just  the 
same  way.  The  com  plant,  a  summer  grower,  of  course  uses 
a  certain  portion  of  the  plant  food  stored  in  the  soil.  In  order 
that  the  crop  following  the  corn  may  feed  on  what  the  corn 
did  not  use,  this  crop  should  be  one  that  requires  a  some- 
what different  food.  Moreover,  it  should  be  one  that  fits  in 
well  with  corn  so  as  to  make  a  winter  crop.    We  find  just 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  PLANT 


37 


such  a  plant  in  clover  or  wheat.  Like  the  cowpea,  all  the 
varieties  of  clover  have  on  their  roots  tubercles  that  add  the 
important  element,  nitrogen,  to  the  soil. 

From  these  facts  is  it  not  clear  that  if  you  wish  to  im- 
prove vour  land  quickly  and  keep  it  always  fruitful  you  must 
practice  crop-rotation  } 


An  Ii.iastratiox  of  Crop-Rotation 

Here  are  two  svstems  of  crop-rotation  as  practiced  at  one 
or  more  agricultural  experiment  stations.  Each  furnishes  an 
ideal  plan  for  keeping  up  land. 


First  Veak                                Second  Year                               Third  Year 

Summer               Winter         |       Summer               Winter         j       Summer 

Winter 

„                  Crimson     i     „                     ,,.,            i|    „ 
Com       '        ,                    Cotton            \\  heat         Cowpeas 
clover       '                                             i 

,                       1 

Rye  for 

pasture 

or 

Summer 

Winter               Summer 

Winter               Summer               Winter 

Com 

,,.,                  Clover 
^^  heat 

and  grass 

Clover 
and  grass 

Grass 

Grass  for 

pasture  or 

meadow 

In  these  rotations  the  cowpeas  and  clovers  are  nitrogen- 
gathering  crops.  They  not  only  furnish  ha}-  but  the\'  enrich 
the  soil.  The  wheat,  corn,  and  cotton  are  money  crops,  but 
in  addition  they  are  culti\ated  crops  ;  hence  they  improve 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  give  opportunity  to  kill 
weeds.  The  grasses  and  clovers  are  of  course  used  for  pas- 
turage and  hay.  This  is  only  a  suggested  rotation.  Work 
out  one  that  will  meet  your  home  need. 


38       AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


EXERCISE 


Let  the  pupils  each  present  a  system  of  rotation  that  includes  the  crops 
raised  at  home.  The  system  presented  should  as  nearly  as  possible  meet 
the  f ollo-wing  requirements : 

1 .  Legumes  for  gathering  nitrogen. 

2.  Mone\-  crops  for  cash  income. 

3.  Cultivated  crops  for  tillage  and  weed-destruction. 

4.  Food  crops  for  feeding  live  stock. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE  PLANT 

SECTION  XII.     HOW  A  PLANT  FEEDS  FROM 
THE  AIR 

If  you  partly  burn  a  match  you  will  see  that  it  becomes  black. 
This  black  substance  into  which  the  match  changes  is  called 
carboti.  Examine  a  fresh  stick  of  charcoal,  which  is,  as  you 
no  doubt  know,  burnt  wood.  You  see  in  the  charcoal  every 
fiber  that  you  saw  in  the  wood  itself.  This  means  that  every 
part  of  the  plant  contains  carbon.  How  important,  then,  is 
this  substance  to  the  plant ! 

You  \\ill  be  surprised  to  know  that  the  total  amount  of 
carbon  in  plants  comes  from  the  air.  All  the  carbon  that 
a  plant  gets  is  taken  in  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant ;  not  a 
particle  is  gathered  by  the  roots.  A  large  tree,  weighing 
perhaps  ii.ooo  pounds,  requires  in  its  growth  carbon  from 
16,000,000  cubic  yards  of  air. 

Perhaps,  after  these  statements,  you  may  think  there  is 
danger  that  the  carbon  of  the  air  may  sometime  become 
exhausted.  The  air  of  the  whole  world  contains  about  1.760,- 
000,000.000  pounds  of  carbon.  Moreover,  this  is  continually 
being  added  to  by  our  fires  and  by  the  breath  of  animals. 
When  wood  or  coal  is  used  for  fuel  the  carbon  of  the  burn- 
ing substance  is  returned  to  the  air  in  the  form  of  gas.  Some 
large  factories  burn  great  quantities  of  coal  and  thus  turn 
much  carbon  back  to  the  air.    A  single  factor)-  in  Germany 

39 


40  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 

is  estimated  to  give  back  to  the  air  daih'  about  5,28o,ocx) 
pounds  of  carbon.  You  see,  then,  that  carbon  is  constantly 
being  put  back  into  the  air  to  replace  that  which  is  used  by 
growing  plants. 

The  carbon  of  the  air  can  be  used  by  none  but  green 
plants,  and  by  them  only  in  the  sunlight.  We  may  compare 
the  green  coloring  matter  of  the  leaf  to  a  machine,  and  the 
sunlight  to  the  power,  or  energy,  which  keeps  the  machine 
in  motion.  By  means,  then,  of  sunlight  and  the  green  col- 
oring matter  of  the  leaves,  the  plant  secures  carbon.  The 
carbon  passes  into  the  plant  and  is  there  made  into  t\vo 
foods  ver)-  necessan,'  to  the  plant ;  namely,  starch  and  sugar. 

Sometimes  the  plant  uses  the  starch  and  sugar  immedi- 
ately. At  other  times  it  stores  both  away,  as  it  does  in  the 
Irish  and  the  sweet  potato  and  in  beets,  cabbage,  peas,  and 
beans.  These  plants  are  used  as  food  by  man  because  they 
contain  so  much  nourishment ;  that  is,  starch  and  sugar  which 
were  stored  awa\'  by  the  plant  for  its  own  future  use. 

EXERCISE 

Examine  some  charcoal.  Can  you  see  the  rings  of  growth  ?  Slightly' 
char  paper,  cloth,  meat,  sugar,  starch,  etc.  WTiat  does  the  turning  black 
prove .'  WTiat  per  cent  of  these  substances  do  30U  think  is  pure  carbon ? 

SECTION  XIII.    THE  SAP  CURRENT 

The  root-hairs  take  nourishment  from  the  soil.  The  leaves 
manufacture  starch  and  sugar.  These  manufactured  foods 
must  be  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  plant.  There  are  two 
currents  to  earn*  them.  One  passes  from  the  roots  through 
the  young  wood  to  the  leaves,  and  one,  a  downward  current, 
passes  through  the  bark,  earning  needed  food  to  the  roots 
(see  Fig.  28). 


THE   PLANT 


41 


If  you  should  injure  the  roots  the  water  supply  to  the 
leaves  would  be  cut  off  and  the  leaves  would  immediately 
wither.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you 
remove  the  bark,  that  is,  girdle  the 
tree,  vou  in  no  way  interfere  with  the 
water  supply  and  the  leaves  do  not 
wither.  Girdling  does,  however,  inter- 
fere with  the  downward  food  current 
through  the  bark. 

If  the  tree  be  girdled  the  roots 
sooner  or  later  suffer  from  lack  of  food 
supplv  from  the  leaves.  Owing  to  this 
food  stoppage  the  roots  will  cease  to 
grow  and  will  soon  be  unable  to  take 
in  sufficient  water,  and  then  the  leaves 
will  begin  to  droop.  This,  however, 
may  not  happen  un- 
til several  months 
after  the  girdling. 
Sometimes  a  partly 
girdled  branch  grows 
much  in  thickness 
just  above  the  gir- 
dle, as  is  shown  in  Fig.  29.  This  extra 
growth  seems  to  be  due  to  a  stoppage  of 
the  rich  supply  of  food  which  was  on  its 
way  to  the  roots  through  the  bark.  It  pig  ,„  ^  Thicken- 
could   go  no  farther  and  was  therefore  ing  above  the  Wire 

used  by  the  tree  to  make  an  unnatural  '^^■^'^    caused    the 

,  ,  .         .         ,-  .,,  ,  Girdling 

growth  at  this  pomt,    1  ou  will  now  under- 
stand how  and  why  trees  die  when  they  are  girdled  to  clear 
new  ground. 


1 


Fig.  28.  Movement  of 
THE  Sap  Current 


42 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGINNERS 


It  is.  then,  the  general  law  of  sap-movement  that  the  up- 
u-ard  current  from  the  roots  passes  through  the  wood)-  portion 
of  the  trunk,  and  that  the  current  bearing  the  food  made 
by  the  leaves  passes  downward  through  the  bark. 

EXERCISE 

Let  the  teacher  see  that  these  and  all  other  experiments  are  performed 
by  the  pupils.    Do  not  allow  them  to  guess,  but  make  them  see. 

Girdle  valueless  trees  or  saplings  of  several  kinds,  cutting  the  bark 
away  in  a  complete  circle  around  the  tree.  Do  not  cut  into  the  wood. 
How  long  before  the  tree  shows  signs  of  injur}?  Girdle  a  single  small 
limb  on  a  tree.    What  hapf>ens  ?    Explain. 


stiff.-a> 


sty.- — 


SECTION  XIV.    THE   FLOWER  AND   THE   SEED 

Some  people  think  that  the  flowers  b\-  the  wa}side  are  for 
the  purpose  of  beautifying  the  world  and  increasing  man's 
enjo\-ment.  Do  you  think  this  is  true .' 
Undoubtedly  a  flower  is  beautiful,  and  to  be 
beautiful  is  one  of  the  uses  of  man}-  flowers  ; 
but  it  is  not  the  chief  use  of  a  flower. 

You  know  that  when  peach  or  apple  blos- 
soms are  nipped  by  the  spring  frost  the  fruit 
crop  is  in  danger.  The  fruit  of  the  plant 
bears  the  seed,  and  the  flower  produces 
the  fruit.    That  is  its  chief  dut)-. 

Do  you  know  any  plant  that  produces  seed 
without  flowers  .'  Some  one  answers,  ' '  The 
com,  the  elm.  and  the  maple  all  produce  seed,  but  have 
no  flower."  Xo,  that  is  not  correct.  If  you  look  closely 
you  will  find  in  the  spring  xexy  small  flowers  on  the  elm 
and  on  the  maple,  while  the  ear  and  the  tassel  are  really 
the  blossoms  of  the  com  plant.    Ever)-  plant  that  produces 


Fig.  30.  Parts  of 
THE  Pistil 


THE   PLANT 


43 


seed  has  flowers,  although  they  may  sometimes  seem  ven' 
curious  flowers. 

Let  us  see  what  a  flower  really  is.    Take,  for  example,  a 
buttercup    cotton,  tobacco,  or  plum  blossom  (see  Figs.   31 

Pistil       Pistil 


Stamen 


Petal 


Stamen 


Fig.  31.  A  Buttercup 

and  32).  You  will  find  on  the  outside  a  row  of  green  leaves 
inclosing  the  flower  when  it  is  still  a  bud.  These  leaves 
are  the  sc/>als.     Next  on  the   inside  is  a  row  of  colored 


Stigma 


leaves,  or  petals.  Ar- 
ranged inside  of  the  petals 
are  some  threadlike  parts, 
each  with  a  knob  on  the 
end.  These  are  the  sta- 
mens. Examine  one  sta- 
men closely  (Fig.  33).  On 
the  knob  at  its  tip  you 
should  find,  if  the  flower 
is  fully  open,  some  fine 
grains,  or  powder.  In  the 
lily  this  powder  is  so  abundant  that  in  smelling  the  flower 
you  often  brush  a  quantity'  of  it  off  on  your  nose.  This 
substance  is  called  pollen,  and  the  knob  on  the  end  of  the 
stamen,  on  which  the  pollen  is  borne,  is  the  anther. 


Fir.. 


A  Plum  Blossom 


44 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


f^  iSlajiDeEii 


The  pollen  is  of  very  great  importance  to  the  flower. 

Without  it  there  could  be  no  seeds.  The  stamens  as  pollen- 
bearers,  then,  are  very  important.  But 
there  is  another  part  to  each  flower  that 
is  of  equal  value.  This  part  370U  will  find 
in  the  centCT  of  the  flower,  inside  the 
circle  of  stamens.  It  is  called  the  pistil 
(Fig.  32).  The  swollen  tip  of  the  pistil 
is  the  stigma.  The  swollen  base  of  the 
pistil  forms  the  (n^ary.  If  you  careful!}^ 
cut  open  this  ovary  j'ou  will  find  in  it 
very  small  immature  seeds. 

Some  plants  bear  all  these  parts  in  the 
same  flower;  that  is,  each  blossom  has 
stamens,  pistil,  petals,  and  sepals.  The  pear 

blossom  and  the  tomato  blossom  represent  such  flowers.  Other 

plants  bear  their  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  blossoms. 

Stamens  and  pistils  may 

even    occur    in    separate 

plants,  and  some  blossoms 

have  no  sepals  or  petals 

at  all.    Look  at  the  com 

plant.    Here  the  tasse!  :? 

a  cluster  of  man}'  flc'  ■  rr~. 

each  of  which  bears     : 

stamens.   The  ear  is 

wise   a    cluster  of    i,;^;._, 

flowers,    each    of    which 

bears  only  a  pistiL    The 

dust  that  you  see  falling 

fiXHn  the  tassel  is  the  pollen,  and  the  long  silky  threads 

of  the  ear  are  the  stigmas. 


Fig.  34-  A  Tomato  Blossom 


THE  PLANT 


45 


-h      b: 


Now  no  plant  can  bear  seeds  unless  the  pollen  of  the 
stamen  falls  on  the  stigma.  Corn  cannot  therefore  form  seed 
unless  the  dust  of  the  tassel  falls  upon  the  silk.  Did  you 
ever  notice  how  poorly  the  cob  is  filled  on  a  single  corn- 
stalk standing  alone  in  a  field .?  Do  you  see  why  ?  It  is 
because  when  a  plant  stands  alone  the  wind  blows  the  pollen 
away  from  the  tassel,  and  little  or  none  is  received  on  the 
stigmas  below. 

In  the  corn  plant  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  separate  ;  that 
is,  they  do  not  occur  on  the  same  flower,  although  they  are 
on   the    same 


plant.  This  is 

also  true  of  the 

cucumber  (see 

Fig.   35).    In 

many    plants, 

however,  such 

as  the  hemp, 

hop,  sassafras,  willow,  and  others,  the  staminate 

parts  are  on  one  plant  and  the  pistillate  parts 

are  on  another.    This  is  also  true  in  several  other  cultivated 

plants.     For  example,  in  some  strawberries  the  stamens  are 

absent  or  useless  ;  that  is,  they  bear  no  good  pollen.   In  such 

cases  the  grower  must  see  to  it  that  near  by  are  strawberry 

plants  that  bear  stamens,  in  order  that  those  plants  which  do 

not  bear  j^oUen  may  become  pollinated ;  that  is,  may  have 

pollen  carried  to  them.    After  the  stigma  has  been  supplied 

with  pollen,  a  single  pollen  grain  sends  a  threadlike  sprout 

down  through  the  stigma  into  the  ovary.    This  process,  if 

successfully  completed,  is  called  fertilization. 


Fig.  35.  Cucumher  Blossoms 


46  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

EXERCISE 

Examine  several  flowers  and  identify  the  parts  named  in  the  last 
section.  Try  in  the  proper  season  to  find  the  pollen  on  the  maple, 
willow,  alder,  and  pine,  and  on  wheat,  cotton,  and  the  morning-glory. 

How  fast  does  the  ovary  of  the  apple  blossom  enlarge?  Measure 
one  and  watch  it  closely  from  day  to  day.  Can  you  find  any  plants  that 
have  their  stamens  and  ovaries  on  separate  individuals  ? 


SECTION  XV.    POLLINATION 

Nature  has  several  interesting  ways  of  bringing  about  pol- 
lination. In  the  corn,  willow,  and  pine  the  pollen  is  picked 
up  by  the  wind  and  carried  away.  Much  of  it  is  lost,  but 
some  reaches  the  stigmas,  or  receptive  parts,  of  other  corn, 
willow,  or  pine  flowers.  This  is  a  very  wasteful  method,  and 
all  plants  using  it  must  provide  much  pollen. 

Many  plants  employ  a  much  better  method.  They  have 
learned  how  to  make  insects  bear  their  pollen.  In  plants  of 
this  type  the  parts  of  the  blossom  are  so  shaped  and  so 
placed  as  to  deposit  pollen  from  the  stamen  on  the  insect 
and  to  receive  pollen  from  the  insect  on  the  stigmas. 

When  you  see  the  clumsy  bumblebee  clambering  over  and 
pushing  his  way  into  a  clover  blossom,  you  may  be  sure  that 
he  is  getting  well  dusted  with  pollen  and  that  the  next  blossom 
which  he  visits  will  secure  a  full  share  on  its  stigmas. 

When  flowers  fit  themselves  to  be  pollinated  by  insects 
they  can  no  longer  use  the  wind  and  are  helpless  if  insects 
do  not  visit  them.  They  therefore  cunningly  plan  two  ways  to 
invite  the  visits  of  insects.  First,  they  provide  a  sweet  nectar 
as  a  repast  for  the  insect  visitor.  The  nectar  is  a  sugary  solu- 
tion found  in  the  bottom  of  the  flower  and  is  used  by  the 
visitor  as  food  or  to  make  honey.     Second,  flowers  advertise 


THE  PLANT 


47 


to  let  each  insect  know  that  they  have  something  for  it. 
The  advertising  is  done  either  by  showy  colors  or  by  per- 
fume. Insects  have  wonderful  powers  of  smell.  When  you 
see  showy  flowers  or  smell  fragrant  ones,  you  will  know  that 
such  flowers  are  advertising  the  presence  either  of  nectar  or 
of  pollen  (to  make  beebread)  and  that  such  flowers  depend 
on  insects  for  pollination. 


Fig.  36.    Bkks  carrying  Pollen        \  •. 

A  season  of  heavy,  cold  rains  during  blossoming-time  may 
often  injure  the  fruit  crop  by  preventing  insects  from  carry- 
ing pollen  from  flower  to  flower.  You  now  also  understand 
why  plants  often  fail  to  produce  seeds  indoors.  Since  they 
are  shut  in.  they  cannot  receive  proper  insect  visits.  Plants 
such  as  tomatoes  or  other  garden  fruits  dependent  upon 
insect  pollination  must,  if  raised  in  the  greenhouse  where 
insects  cannot  visit  them,  be  pollinated  by  liand. 


48  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

EXERCISE 

Exclude  insect  \isirors  from  some  flower  or  flower  cluster,  for  example, 
clover,  by  covering  with  a  paper  bag.  and  see  whether  the  flower  can 
produce  seeds  that  are  capable  of  growing.  Compare  as  to  number 
and  \-itaht)-  the  seeds  of  such  a  flower  with  those  of  an  uncovered 
flower.  Obser\-e  insects  closely.  Do  j'ou  ever  find  pollen  on  them.' 
What  kinds  of  insects  \-isit  the  clover  ?  the  cowpea  ?  the  sourwood  ?  the 
flax  ?  Is  wheat  pollinated  by  insects  or  by  the  wind  or  by  some  other 
means?  Do  bees  fly  in  rainy  weather?  How  will  a  long  rainy  season 
at  blossoming-time  affect  the  apple  crop?  "^^^ly?  Should  bees  be  kept 
in  an  orchard?  \\'hy? 


SECTION  XVI.    CROSSES.  HYBRIDS.  AND  CROSS- 
POLLINATION 

In  our  study  of  flowers  and  their  pollination  we  have  seen 
that  the  seed  is  usually  the  descendant  of  two  parents,  or  at 
least  of  two  organs  —  one  the  ovar\-,  producing  the  seed  ;  the 
other  the  pollen,  which  is  necessarj'  to  fertilize  the  o\^ary. 

It  happens  that  sometimes  the  pollen  of  one  blossom  fer- 
tilizes the  ovan*  of  its  own  flower,  but  more  often  the  pollen 
from  one  plant  fertilizes  the  ovan.-  of  another  plant.  This 
latter  method  is  called  cross-pollination.  As  a  rule  cross- 
pollination  makes  seed  that  \\\\\  produce  a  better  plant  than 
simple  pollination  would.  Cross-pollination  by  hand  is  often 
used  by  plant-breeders  when,  for  purposes  of  seed-selection, 
a  specially  strong  plant  is  desired.  The  steps  in  hand  pollina- 
tion are  as  follows  :  ( i )  remove  the  anthers  before  they  open, 
to  prevent  them  from  pollinating  the  stigma  (the  steps  in  this 
process  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  17,  38-39) ;  (2)  cover  the 
flower  thus  treated  with  a  paper  bag  to  prevent  stray  pollen 
from  getting  on  it  (see  Fig.  40) ;  (3)  when  the  ovar\-  is  suffi- 
ciently developed,  carr)'  poUen  to  the  stigma  by  hand  from  the 


THE  PLANT 


49 


anthers  of  another  plant  which  you  have  selected  to  furnish 
it,  and  rebag  to  keep  out  any  stray  pollen  which  might  acci- 
dentally get  in  ;  (4)  collect  the  seeds  when  they  are  mature 
and  label  them  properly. 

Hand  pollination  has  this  advantage  —  you  know  both 
parents  of  \our  seed.  If  pollination  occur  naturally  you 
know  the  maternal  but  have  ■•• 

no   means  of   judging   the  ^ 

paternal   parent.     You  can 

readilv  see,  therefore,  how  •'  /. 

hand  pollination  enables  you 
to  secure  seed  derived  from 
two  well-behaved  parents. 

Sometimes  we  can  breed 
one  kind  of  plant  on  an- 
other. The  result  of  such 
cross-breeding  is  known  as 
a  hybnd.  In  the  animal 
kingdom  the  mule  is  a  com- 
mon example  of  this  cross- 
breeding. Plant  hybrids  were 
formerly  called  mules  also, 
but  this  suggestive  term  is 
almost  out  of  use. 

It  is  only  when  plants  of 
two  distinct  kinds  are  crossed 
that  the  result  is  called  a  hybrid  ;  for  example,  a  blackjack 
oak  on  a  white  oak,  an  apple  on  a  pear.  If  the  parent  plants 
are  closely  related,  for  example,  two  kinds  of  apples,  the 
resulting  plant  is  known  simply  as  a  cross. 

Hybrids  and  crosses  are  valuable  in  that  they  usually  differ 
from  both  parents  and  yet  combine  some  qualities  of  each. 


P"lG. 


37 


The  bud  on  right  at  top  is  in  proper  con- 
dition for  removal  of  anthers ;  the  anthers 
have  been  removed  from  the  buds  below 


Fig.  3S.   Orange  Blossom  irefared  ec'R  crossing 
First,  bud  ;  second,  antiiei^  nnremoved  ;  tiiird.  anthers  reiric>ved 


Fig.  39.   Tomato  Blossom  ril^dy  to  cross 
First,  bud  :  second,  anthers  uni^esDoved ;  duid,  enlfaers  lemoved 


Fig.  40 
First,  blossom  bagged  to  keep  out  stray  pollen :  second,  fruit  bagged  for  jHX>tectkaj 

50 


THE  PLANT  51 

They  often  leave  off  some  of  the  quahties  of  the  parent  plants 
and  at  other  times  have  such  qualities  more  markedly  than 
did  their  parents.  Thus  they  often  produce  an  interesting 
new  kind  of  plant.  Sometimes  we  are  able  by  hybridization  to 
combine  in  one  plant  the  good  qualities  of  two  other  plants 
and  thus  make  a  great  advance  in  agriculture.  The  new  forms 
brought  about  by  hybridization  may  be  fixed,  or  made  perma- 
nent, by  such  selection  as  is  mentioned  in  Section  XVIII. 
Hybridization  is  of  great  aid  in  originating  new  plants. 

It  often  happens  that  a  plant  will  be  more  fruitful  when 
pollinated  by  one  variet}'  than  by  some  other  variety.  This  is 
well  illustrated  in  Fig.' 41.  A  fruit-grower  or  farmer  should 
know  much  about  these  subjects  before  selecting  varieties  for 
his  orchard,  vineyard,  etc. 

EXERCISE 

With  the  help  of  your  teacher  try  to  cross  some  plants.  Such  an  ex- 
periment will  take  time,  but  will  be  most  interesting.  You  must  remem- 
ber that  many  crosses  must  be  attempted  in  order  to  gain  success  with 
even  a  few. 

SECTION  XVII.    PROPAGATION   BY  BUDS 

It  is  the  business  of  the  farmer  to  make  plants  grow,  or,  as 
it  is  generally  called,  to  propagate  plants.  This  he  does  in 
one  of  two  ways  :  by  buds  (that  is,  by  small  pieces  cut  from 
parent  plants),  or  by  seeds.  The  chief  aim  in  both  methods 
should  be  to  secure  in  the  most  convenient  manner  the  best- 
paying  plants. 

Many  plants  are  most  easily  and  quickly  propagated  by 
buds  ;  for  example,  the  grape,  red  raspberrj^  fig,  and  many 
others  that  we  cultivate  for  the  flower  only,  such  as  the 
carnation,  geranium,  rose,  and  begonia. 


Fig.  41 

Brighton  pollinated  by  i,  Salem  ;  2,  Creveling  :  3,  Lindley  ;  4,  Brighton  ; 
5,  Self-poUinated  ;  6,  Nectar  ;  ;,  Jefferson  ;  S,  Niagara 

5- 


THE   PLANT 


53 


j^V- 


./"' 


■\' 


In  growing  plants  from  cuttings,  a  piece  is  taken  from  the 
kind  of  plant  that  one  wishes  to  grow.  The  greatest  care 
must  be  exercised  in  order  to  get  a  healthy  cutting.  If  we 
take  a  cutting  from  a  poor  plant,  what  can  we  expect  but  to 
grow  a  poor  plant  like  the  one  from  which  our  cutting 
was  taken  ?  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  fine,  strong,  vigorous, 
fruitful  plant  be 
selected,  we  shall 
expect  to  grow- 
just  such  a  fine, 
healthy,  fruitful 
plant. 

We  expect  the 
cutting  to  make 
exactly  the  same 
variety  of  plant 
as  the  parent 
stock.  W'e  must 
therefore  decide 
on  the  variety  of 
berr}',  grape,  fig, 
carnation,  or  rose 
that  we  wish  to 
propagate,  and 
then  look  for  the  strongest  and  most  promising  plants  of  this 
variety  within  our  reach.  The  utmost  care  will  not  produce 
a  fine  plant  if  we  start  from  poor  stock. 

What  qualities  are  most  desirable  in  a  plant  from  which 
cuttings  are  to  be  taken  ?  First,  it  should  be  productive, 
liardy,  and  suited  to  your  climate  and  your  needs  ;  second, 
it  should  be  healthy.  Do  not  take  cuttings  from  a  diseased 
plant,  since  the  cutting  may  carry  the  disease. 


Fig.  42.    Gkraxium  Cutting 
Dotted  line  shows  depth  to  which  cutting  should  be  planted 


54 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Fig.  43 
Grape  Cutting 


Cuttings  may  be  taken  from  various  parts  of  the  plant, 
sometimes  even  from  parts  of  the  leaf,  as  in  the  begonia 
(Fig.  46).  More  often,  however,  they 
are  drawn  from  parts  of  the  stem 
(Figs.  43-45).  As  to  the  age  of 
the  twig  from  which  the  cutting  is 
to  be  taken.  Professor  Bailey  says : 
"  For  most  plants  the  proper  age 
or  maturity  of  wood  for  the  making 
of  cuttings  may  be  determined  by 
giving  the  twig  a  quick  bend  ;  if 
it  snaps  and  hangs  by  the  bark,  it 
is  in  proper  condition.  If  it  bends 
Showing  depth  to  which  cutting   without  breaking,  it  is  too  young  and 

should  be  planted  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^j^^     j^   -^  SpUntCrS,  it  is 

too  old  and  woody."    Some  plants,  as  the  geranium  (Fig.  42), 

succeed  best  if  the  cuttings   from  which  they  are  grown 

are  taken  from  soft,  young  parts 

of  the  plant ;   others,  for  example, 

the  grape  or  rose,  do  better  when 

the  cutting  is  made  from  more 

mature  wood. 

Cuttings  may  vary  in  size 
and  may  include  one  or  more 
buds.  After  a  hardy,  vigorous 
cutting  is  made,  insert  it  about 
one  half  or  one  third  of  its 
length  in  soil.  A  soil  free  from 
organic  matter  is  much  the  best, 
since  in  such  soil  the  cuttings  are 


•"jmmWM 


Y/MW/mz/v- 


Fig.  44.    Carxatiox  Cutting 


much  less  liable  to  disease.     A   fine,   clean   sand   is   com- 
monly used  by  professional  gardeners.    When  cuttings  have 


THE  PLANT 


55 


rooted  well  —  this   may  require  a  nionth  or  more  —  they 
may  be  transplanted  to  larger  pots. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  cutting  off  a  piece  and  rooting  it, 
portions  of  branches  are  made  to  root  before  they  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  parent  plant.  This  method  is  often  followed, 
and  is  known  as  laycri?ig-.  It  is  a  simple  process.  Just  bend 
the  tip  of  a  bough  down  and  buiy  it  in  the  earth  (see  Fig.  47). 

The  black  raspbeny  forms  layers 

naturally,   but   gardeners   often 

^"^^^^     ly-.  ,  /'■;^~^   aid  it  by  bur}ing  the  over- 

-'        [  '\y^-    )  hanging  tips  in  the  earth, 

so  that  more 
>^  tips  may  eas- 
^"^  ily  take  root. 
Strawberries 
develop  runners  that  root 
themselves  in  a  similar  fashion. 
Grafts  and  buds  are  really  cuttings  which,  in- 
stead of  being  buried  in  sand  to  produce  roots  of 
their  own,  are  set  on  the  roots  of  other  plants. 
Grafting  and  budding  are  practiced  when  these  methods 
are  more  convenient  than  cuttings  or  when  the  gardener 
thinks  there  is  danger  of  failure  to  get  plants  to  take  root  as 
cuttings.  Neither  grafting  nor  budding  is,  however,  neces- 
san,-  for  the  raspberry  or  the  grape,  for  these  propagate  most 
readily  from  cuttings. 

It  is  often  the  case  that  a  budded  or  grafted  plant  is 
more  fruitful  than  a  plant  on  its  own  roots.  In  cases  of  this 
kind,  of  course,  grafts  or  buds  are  used. 

The  white,  or  Irish,  potato  is  usually  propagated  from  pieces 
of  the  potato  itself.  Each  piece  used  for  planting  bears 
one  eye  or  more.  The  potato  itself  is  really  an  underground 


Fig.  45.  Rose 
Cutting 


56 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


stem  and  the  eyes  are  buds.    This  method  of  propagation  is 
therefore  realh'  a  peculiar  kind  of  cutting. 

Since  the  eye  is  a  bud  and  our  potato  plant  for  next  year 
is  to  develop  from  this  bud,  it  is  of  much  importance,  as  we 
have  seen,  to  know  exactly  what  kirid  of  plant  our  potato 
comes  from.  If  the  potato  is  taken  from  a  small  plant  that 
had  but  a  few  poor  potatoes  in  the  hill,  we  may  expect  the 
bud  to  produce  a  similar  plant  and  a  correspondingly  poor 

crop.  We  must  see  to  it, 
then,  that  our  seed  pota- 
toes are  drawn  from  vines 
that  were  good  producers, 
because  new  potato  plants 
are  like  the  plants  from 
which  they  were  grown. 
Of  course  when  our  pota- 
toes are  in  the  bin  we  can- 
not tell  from  what  kind 
of  plants  they  came.  We 
must  therefore  select  our 
seed  potatoes  in  the  field. 
Seed  potatoes  should  al- 
ways be  selected  from  those  hills  that  produce  most  bounti- 
fully. Be  assured  that  the  increased  }'ield  will  richly  repay 
this  care  in  selecting.  It  matters  not  so  much  whether  the 
seed  potato  be  large  or  small ;  it  must,  however,  come  from 
a  hill  bearing  a  large  yield  of  fine  potatoes. 

Sweet-potato  plants  are  produced  from  shoots,  or  growing 
buds,  taken  from  the  potato  itself,  so  that  in  their  case  too 
the  piece  that  we  use  in  propagating  is  a  part  of  the  original 
plant,  and  will  therefore  be  like  it  under  similar  conditions. 
Just  as  with  the  Irish  potato,  it  is  important  to  know  how 


Fig.  46.   Begoxia-Leaf  Cutting 


THE  PLANT 


57 


good  a  yielder  you  are  planting.  You  should  watch  during 
harvest  and  select  for  propagation  for  the  next  }ear  only 
such  plants  as  yield  best. 

We  should  exercise  fully  as  much  care  in  selecting  proper 
individuals  from  which  to  make  a  cutting  or  a  layer  as  we  do 
in  selecting  a  proper  animal  to  breed  from.  Just  as  we  select 
the  finest  Jersey  in  the  herd  for  breeding  purposes,  so  we 
should  choose  first  the  variety  of  plant  we  desire  and  then 
the  finest  individual  plant  of 
that  variety. 

If  the  variety  of  the  potato 
that  we  desire  to  raise  be  Early 
Rose,  it  is  not  enough  to  select 
any  Early  Rose  plants,  but  the 
ver)^  best  Early  Rose  plants,  to 
furnish  our  seed. 

It  is  not  enough  to  select 
large,  fine  potatoes  for  cuttings. 
A  large  potato  may  not  produce  a  bountifully  yielding  plant. 
It  xi'lll  produce  a  plant  like  the  one  that  produced  it.  It  may 
be  that  this  one  large  potato  was  the  only  one  produced  by 
the  original  plant.  If  so,  the  plant  that  grows  from  it  will 
tend  to  be  similarly  unproductive.  Thus  you  see  the  impor- 
tance of  selecting  in  the  field  a  plant  that  has  exactly  the 
qualities  desi?rd  in  the  new  plant. 

One  of  the  main  reasons  why  gardeners  raise  plants  from 
buds  instead  of  from  seeds  is  that  the  seed  of  many  plants 
will  not  produce  plants  like  the  parent.  This  failure  to  "come 
true,"  as  it  is  called,  is  sometimes  of  value,  for  it  occasionally 
leads  to  improvement.  For  example,  suppose  that  a  thousand 
apple  or  other  fruit  or  flower  seeds  from  plants  usually  prop- 
agated by  cuttings  be  planted  ;    it  may  be  that  one  out  of 


Fig.  47.    Layering 


58 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


a  thousand  or  a  million  will  be  a  very  valuable  plant.  If  a 
valuable  plant  be  so  produced,  it  should  be  most  carefully 
guarded,  multiplied  by  cuttings  or  grafts,  and  introduced  far 
and  wide.  It  is  in  this  way  that  new  varieties  of  fruits  and 
flowers  are  produced  from  time  to  time. 

Sometimes,  too,  a  single  bud  on  a  tree 
will  differ  from  the  other  buds  and  will 
produce  a  branch  different  from  the  other 
branches.  This  is  known  as  bud  variation. 
When  there  is  thus  developed  a  branch 
which  happens  to  be  of  a  superior  kind,  it 
should  be  propagated  by  cuttings  just  as 
you  would  propagate  it  if  it  had  originated 
from  a  seed. 

Mr.  Gideon  of  Minnesota  planted  many 
apple  seeds,  and  from  them  all  raised  one 
tree  that  was  very  fruitful,  finely  flavored, 
and  able  to  withstand  the  cold  ^Minnesota 
winter.  This  tree  he  multiplied  by  grafts 
and  named  the  Wealthy  apple.  It  is  said 
that  in  giving  this  one  apple  to  the  world  he  benefited 
mankind  to  the  value  of  more  than  one  million  dollars. 
It  will  be  well  to  watch  for  any  valuable  bud  or  seed  variant 
and  never  let  a  promising  one  be  lost.  Plants  grown  in 
this  way  from  seeds  are  usually  spoken  of  as  seedlings. 


Fig.  48.  Currant 
Cutting 


Plants  to  be  propagated  from  Buds 


The  following  list  gives  the  names  and  methods  by  which 
our  common  garden  fruits  and  flowers  are  propagated  : 
Figs :  use  cuttings  8  to  10  inches  long  or  layer. 
Grapes :  use  long  cuttings,  layer,  or  graft  upon  old  vines. 


A  LUSCIOL;;  AND   EASILY  GROWN   BERRV 


THE  PLANT  59 

Apples:  graft  upon  seedlings,  usually  crab  seedlings  one 
year  old. 

Pears :  bud  upon  pear  seedlings. 

Cherries :  bud  upon  cherry  stock. 

Plums :  bud  upon  peach  stock. 

Peaehes :  bud  upon  peach  or  plum  seedlings. 

Quinces :  use  cuttings  or  layer. 

Blackbejries :  propagate  by  suckers;  cut  from  parent  stem. 

Blaek  raspberries :  layer;  remove  old  stem. 

Red  raspberries :  propagate  by  root-cuttings  or  suckers. 

Strawberries :  propagate  by  runners. 

Currants  sxid  goosebenies :  use  long  cuttings  (these  plants 
grow  well  only  in  cool  climates;  if  attempted  in  warm 
climates,  set  in  cold  exposure). 

Carnations,  geraniums,  jvses,  begonias,  etc. :  propagate  by 
cuttings  rooted  in  sand  and  then  transplanted  to  small  pots. 

EXERCISE 

Propagate  fruits  (grape,  fig.  strawberry)  of  various  kinds  :  also  orna- 
mental plants.  How  long  does  it  take  them  to  root?  Geraniums  rooted 
in  the  spring  will  bloom  in  the  fall.  Do  you  know  any  one  who  selects 
seed  potatoes  properly?  Make  a  careful  selection  of  seed  at  the  next 
harv'est-time. 

SECTION  XVIII.    PLANT  SEEDING 

In  propagating  by  seed,  as  in  reproducing  by  buds,  we 
select  a  portion  of  the  parent  plant — for  a  seed  is  surely  a 
part  of  the  parent  plant  —  and  place  it  in  the  ground.  There 
is,  however,  one  great  difference  between  a  seed  and  a 
bud.  The  bud  is  really  a  piece  of  the  parent  plant,  but  a 
piece  of  one  plant  only,  while  a  seed  comes  from  the  parts 
of  two  plants. 


6o  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

You  will  understand  this  fuUy  if  you  read  carefully  Sec- 
tions XI\'-X\'I.  Since  the  seed  is  made  of  twro  plants, 
the  plant  that  springs  from  a  seed  is  much  more  likely  to 
differ  from  its  modier  plant,  that  is,  from  the  plant  that  pro- 
duces the  seed,  than  is  a  plant  produced  merely  by  buds.  In 
some  cases  plants  "  come  true  to  seed  "  vet}-  accurately.  In 
others  they  \^ary  greatly.  For  example,  when  we  plant  the 
seed  of  wheat,  turnips,  r)?^e,  onions,  tomatoes,  tobacco,  or  cot- 
ton, we  get  plants  that  are  in  most  respects  like  the  parent 
planL  On  the  other  hand  the  seed  of  a  Crawford  peach  or 
a  Bald^iin  apple  or  a  Bartlett  p>ear  will  not  produce  plants 
like  its  parent,  but  will  rather  resemble  its  wild  forefathers. 
These  seedlings,  thus  taking  after  their  ancestors,  are  always 
far  inferior  to  our  present  cultivated  forms.  In  such  cases 
seeding  is  not  praddcable,  and  we  must  resort  to  bud  propa- 
gation of  one  sort  or  another. 

While  in  a  few  plants  like  those  just  mentioned  the  seed 
does  not  "  come  true,"  most  plants,  for  example,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  others,  do  ''  come  true."  WTien  we  plant  King 
cotton  we  may  expect  to  raise  King  cotton.  There  will  be, 
however,  as  ever\-  one  knows,  some  or  even  considerable  \:ari- 
ation  in  the  field.  Some  plants,  even  in  exactly  the  same  soil, 
will  be  better  than  the  average,  and  some  will  be  poorer.  Now 
we  see  this  variation  in  the  plants  of  our  field,  and  we  beheve 
that  the  plant  will  be  in  the  main  like  its  parent.  WTiat 
should  we  learn  from  this  ?  Surely  that  if  we  wish  to  produce 
sturdy,  healthy,  productive  plants  we  must  go  into  our  fields 
and  pick  aiit  just  such  plants  to  seatre  seed  from  as  we  wish 
to  produce  another  year.  If  we  wait  untfl  the  seed  is  separated 
from  the  plant  that  produced  it  before  we  select  our  cotton 
seed,  we  shall  be  planting  seed  from  poor  as  well  as  from  good 
plants,  and  must  be  content  with  a  crop  of  just  such  stock 


Figs.  49  and  50.   Chkvsanthkmums  and  Asparagus 


61 


62  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

as  we  have  planted.  By  selecting  seed  from  the  most  pro- 
ductive plants  /;/  the  field  and  by  repeating  the  selection 
each  year,  vou  can  continually  improve  the  breed  of  the 
plant  you  are  raising.  In  selecting  seed  for  cotton  you  may 
follow  the  plan  suggested  below  for  wheat. 

The  difference  that  you  see  bet\veen  the  wild  and  the  culti- 
vated chiA'santhemums  and  between  the  samples  of  aspara- 
gus shown  in  Figs.  49  and  50  was  brought  about  by  just  such 
continuous  seed-selection  from  the  kind  of  plant  wanted. 


Fig.  51.    Two  Varieties  of  Fl.\x  from  One  Parent  Stock 

By  the  careful  selection  of  seed  from  the  longest  flax 
plants  the  increase  in  length  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figure  was  gained.  The  selection  of  seed  from  those  plants 
bearing  the  most  seed,  regardless  of  the  height  of  the  plant, 
has  produced  flax  like  that  to  the  right  in  the  illustration. 
These  two  kinds  of  flax  are  from  the  same  parent  stock,  but 
slight  differences  have  been  emphasized  by  continued  seed- 
selection,  until  we  now  have  really  two  varieties  of  flax,  one 
a  hea\T  seed-bearer,  the  other  producing  a  long  fiber. 

You  can  in  a  similar  way  improve  your  cotton  or  an}-  other 
seed  crop.  Sugar  beets  have  been  made  by  seed-selection  to 
produce  aix)ut  double  the  percentage  of  sugar  that  the}-  did 


THE  PLANT 


63 


a  few  years  ago.  Preparing  and  tilling  land  costs  too  much 
in  money  and  work  to  allow  the  land  to  be  planted  with  poor 
seed.  When  you  are  tr}-ing  by  seed-selection  to  increase  the 
yield  of  cotton,  there  are  two  principles  that  should  be  borne 
in  mind :  first,  seed  should  be  chosen  only  from  plants  that 
bear  many  well-filled  bolls  of  long-staple  cotton  ;  second,  seed 
should  be  taken  from  no  plant  that  does  not  by  its  healthy 
condition  show  hardihood  in  resisting  disease  and  drouth. 

The  plan  of  choosing  seeds  from  selected  plants  may  be 
applied  to  wheat ; 
but  it  would  of 
course  be  too  time- 
consuming  to  se- 
lect enough  single 
wheat  plants  to 
furnish  all  of  the, 
seed  wheat  for  the 
next  year.  In  this 
case  adopt  the 
following  plan  : 
In  Fig.  52  let 
A  represent  the 
total  size  of  your  wheat  field  and  let  B  represent  a  plat  large 
enough  to  furnish  seed  for  the  whole  field.  At  harvest-time 
go  into  section  A  and  select  the  best  plants  you  can  find. 
Pick  the  heads  of  these  and  thresh  them  by  hand.  The  seed 
so  obtained  must  be  carefully  saved  for  your  next  sowing. 

In  the  fall  sow  these  selected  seeds  in  area  B.  This  area 
should  produce  the  best  wheat.  At  the  next  har\'est  cull  not 
from  the  whole  field  but  from  the  finest  plants  of  plat  B,  and 
again  save  these  as  seed  for  plat  /?.  Use  the  unculled  seed  from 
plat  B  to  sow  your  crop.   By  following  this  plan  continuously 


Fig. 


64  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

you  will  even-  year  have  seed  from  several  generations  of 
choice  plants,  and  each  year  you  \\i\\  improve  your  seed. 
/  It  is  of  course  advisable  to  move  your  seed  plat  £  ever)-  year 
or  two.    For  the  new  plat  select  land  that  has  recently  been 
planted  in  legumes.    Always  give  this  plat  unwean-ing  care. 

In  the  selection  of  plants  from  which  to  get  seed,  you 
must  know  what  kind  of  plants  are  really  the  best  seed 
plants.  First,  jw/  7;iust  not  regard  single  heads  or  grams, 
but  vmst  select  seed  from  the  most  perfect  plant,  looking  at 
the  plant  as  a  whole  and  not  at  any  single  part  of  it.  A  first 
consideration  is  yield.  Select  the  plants  that  )-ield  best  and 
are  at  the  same  time  resistant  to  drouth,  resistant  to  rust  and 
to  winter,  early  to  ripen,  plump  of  grain,  and  nonshattering. 
What  a  fine  thing  it  would  be  to  find  even  one  plant  free 
from  rust  in  the  midst  of  a  rusted  field !  It  would  mean  a 
rust-resistant  plant.  Its  offspring  also  would  probabl}-  be 
rust- resistant.  If  you  should  ever  find  such  a  plant,  be  sure  to 
save  its  seed  and  plant  it  in  a  plat  by  itself.  The  next  \-ear 
again  save  seed  from  those  plants  least  rusted.  Possibly  you 
can  develop  a  rust-proof  race  of  wheat !  Keep  your  eyes  open. 

In  England  the  average  \-ield  of  wheat  is  thirt}-  bushels  an 
acre,  in  the  United  States  it  is  less  than  fifteen  bushels  !  In 
some  states  the  yield  is  even  less  than  nine  bushels  an  acre. 
Let  us  select  our  seed  ^^-ith  care,  as  the  English  people  do, 
and  then  we  can  increase  our  \-ield.  By  careful  seed-selection 
a  plant-breeder  in  ^linnesota  increased  the  \-ield  of  his  wheat 
by  one  fourth.  Think  what  it  would  mean  if  twent}--five 
per  cent  were  added  to  the  world's  supply  of  wheat  at 
comparatively  no  cost :  that  is,  at  the  mere  cost  of  careful 
seed-selection.  This  would  mean  an  addition  to  the  world's 
income  of  about  S500,cxx),ooo  each  year.  The  United  States 
would  get  about  one  fifth  of  this  profit. 


THE  PLANT  65 

It  often  happens  that  a  single  plant  in  a  crop  of  corn, 
cotton,  or  wheat  will  be  far  superior  to  all  others  in  the  field. 
Such  a  plant  deser\-es  special  care.  Do  not  use  it  merely  as 
a  seed  plant,  but  carefully  plant  its  seeds  apart  and  tend  care- 
fully. The  following  season  select  the  best  of  its  offspring 
as  favorites  again.  Repeat  this  selection  and  culture  for 
several  )ears  until  you  fix  the  variety.  This  is  the  way  new 
\arieties  are  originated  from  plants  propagated  by  seed. 

In  1862  Mr.  Abraham  Fultz  of  Pennsylvania,  while  pass- 
ing through  a  field  of  bearded  wheat,  found  three  heads  of 
beardless,  or  bald,  wheat.  These  he  sowed  by  themselves 
that  year,  and  as  they  turned  out  specially  productive  he 
continued  to  sow  this  new  variety.  Soon  he  had  enough  seed 
to  distribute  over  the  country.  It  became  known  as  the  P^ultz 
wheat  and  is  to-day  one  of  the  best  varieties  in  the  United 
States  and  in  a  number  of  foreign  countries.  Think  how 
manv  bushels  of  wheat  have  been  added  to  the  world's  annual 
supplv  by  a  few  moments  of  intelligent  observ^ation  and  action 
on  the  part  of  this  one  man  !  He  saw  his  opportunity  and 
used  it.  How  many  similar  opportunities  do  you  think  are 
lost  ?    How  much  does  your  state  or  country  lose  thereby  ? 

EXERCISE 

Select  one  hundred  seeds  from  a  good,  and  one  hundred  from  a  poor, 
plant  of  the  same  variety.  Sow  them  in  two  plats  far  enough  apart  to 
avoid  cross-pollination,  yet  try  to  have  soil  conditions  about  the  same. 
Give  each  the  same  care  and  compare  the  yield.  Try  this  with  corn,  cot- 
ton, and  wheat.  Select  seeds  from  the  best  plant  in  your  good  plat  and  from 
the  poorest  in  your  poor  plat  and  repeat  the  experiment.  This  will  require 
but  a  few  feet  of  ground,  and  the  good  plat  will  pay  for  itself  in  yield, 
while  the  poor  plat  will  more  than  pay  in  the  lesson  that  it  will  teach  you. 

Write  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  and  to 
your  state  experiment  station  for  bulletins  concerning  seed-selection 
and  methods  of  plant-improvement. 


66  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

SECTION  XIX.    SELECTING   SEED   CORN 

If  a  fanner  would  raise  good  crops  he  must,  as  already 
stated,  select  good  seed  Many  of  the  farmer's  disappoint- 
ments in  the  quantity  and  quality'  of  his  cropys  —  disappoint- 
moits  often  thought  to  oome  from  other  causes  —  are  the 
result  of  planting  poor  seed.  Seeds  not  full}-  ripened,  if  they 
"  grow  at  all,   produce   imperfect   plants. 

Good  seed,  therefore,  is  the  first  thing 
necessary'  for  a  good  crop.  The  seed  of 
perfect  plants  onl}'  should  be  saved. 

By  wise  and  i>ersistent  selection,  made 
in  the  field  before  the  crop  is  fully  ma- 
tured, com  can  be  improved  in  size  and 
made  to  mature  earher.  Gather  ears  onl}- 
from  the  most  productive  plants  and  save 
i-nly  the  largest  and  best  kernels. 

You  have  no  doubt  seen  the  common 

American  blackbirds  that  usually  migrate 

and  feed  in  such  large  numbers.    They 

all  look  alike  in  eveiy  vtclx.    Xow,  has  it 

Fig.  ^^.  The  Kind   ever  occurred  to  you  to  ask  why  all  black- 

OF  Eae  to  Select  ^^^^  ^^  ^lack  .?  The  blackbirds  are  black 

sunjdy  because  their  parents  are  black. 

Now  in  the  same  way  that  the  \-oung  blackbirds  resemble 
dieir  paients,  com  will  resemble  its  parent  stock.  How  many 
ears  of  com  do  you  find  on  a  stalk  ?  One,  two.  sometimes 
three  or  four.  You  find  two  ears  of  com  on  a  stalk  because 
it  is  the  nature  of  that  particular  stalk  to  produce  two  ears. 
In  the  same  way  the  nature  of  some  stalks  is  to  produce  but 
one  ear,  whfle  it  is  the  nature  of  others  sometimes  to  produce 
two  or  more. 


THE  PLANT 


^7 


This  resemblance  of  offspring  to  parent  is  known  to  scien- 
tists as  heredity,  or  as  '"  Hke  producing  Hke." 

Some  Southern  corn-breeders  take  advantage  of  this  law 
to  improve  their  corn  crop.  If  a  stalk  can  be  made  to  produce 
two  ears  of  corn  just  as  large  as  the  single  ear  that  most 
stalks  bear,  we  shall  get  twice  as  much  corn  from  a  field  in 
which  the  "  two-eared  " 
variety  is  planted.  In 
the  North  and  West  the 
best  varieties  of  corn 
have  been  selected  to 
make  but  one  ear  to  the 
stalk.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  this  is  the 
best  practice  for  the 
shorter  growing  seasons 
of  the  colder  states. 

These  facts  ought  to 
be  ver}-  helpful  to  us 
next  year  when  our 
fathers  are  planting 
corn.  We  should  get 
them  to  plant  seed  se- 
cured only  from  stalks 
that  produced  the  most 
corn,  whether  the  stalk  had  two  or  more  ears  or  onl\'  one. 
If  we  follow  this  plan  year  by  year,  each  acre  of  land  will 
be  made  to  produce  more  kernels  and  hence  a  larger  crop  of 
corn,  and  }et  no  more  work  will  be  required  to  raise  the  crop. 

In  addition  to  enlarging  the  yield  of  corn,  you  can,  bv 
proper  selection  of  the  best  and  most  productive  plants  in  the 
field,  grow  a  new  \'ariet\-  of  seed  corn.    To  do  this  \-ou  need 


Fig.  54.    Select  Seed  from  a  Stalk  ' 

LIKE  THAT   ON    LeFT 


63  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

only  take  the  largest  and  best  kernels  from  stalks  bearing  two 
ears  ;  plant  these,  and  at  the  next  harvest  again  save  the  best 
kernels  from  stalks  bearing  the  best  ears.  If  you  keep  up  this 
practice  with  great  care  for  several  )'ears,  you  will  get  a  vigor- 
ous, fruitful  variet}-  that  will  command  a  high  price  for  seed. 

EXPERIMENT 

Even^  school  boy  and  girl  can  make  this  experiment  at  leisure.  From 
your  own  field  get  two  ears  of  corn,  one  from  a  stalk  bearing  only  one 
ear  and  the  other  from  a  stalk  bearing  two  well-grown  ears.    Plant  the 


Fig.  55.    Improvemext  of  Corn  by  Selectiox 

Boone  Count)'  white  com  on  left,  and  original  tj^pe,  from  which  it  was  developed 
by  selection,  on  right 

grains  from  one  ear  in  one  plat,  and  the  grains  from  the-  other  in  a 
plat  of  equal  size.  Use  for  both  the  same  soil  and  the  same  fertilizer. 
Cultivate  both  plats  in  the  same  way.  When  the  crop  is  ready  to  har\-est, 
husk  the  corn,  count  the  ears,  and  weigh  the  corn.  Then  write  a  short 
essay  on  your  work  and  on  the  results  and  get  your  teacher  to  correct 
the  story  for  your  home  paper. 


THE  PLANT 


69 


SECTION  XX.    WEEDS 


Have  you  ever  noticed  that  some  weeds  are  killed  by  one 
particular  method,  but  that  this  same  method  ma\'  entirely  fail 
to  kill  other  kinds  of  weeds  ?  If  we  wish  to  free  our  fields  of 
weeds  with  the  greatest  ease,  we  must  know  the  nature  of 
each  kind  of  weed  and  then  attack 
it  in  the  way  in  which  we  can 
most  readily  destroy  it. 

The  ordinary  pigweed  (Fig.  56) 
differs  from  many  other  weeds  in 
that  it  lives  for  only  one  year. 
When  winter  comes,  it  must  die. 
Each  plant,  however,  bears  a  great 
number  of  seeds.  If  we  can  pre- 
\-ent  the  plant  from  bearing  seed 
in  its  first  year,  there  will  not  be 
man}'  seeds  to  come  up  the  next 
season.  In  fact,  only  those  seeds 
that  were  too  deeply  buried  in  the 
soil  to  come  up  the  previous  spring 
will  be  left,  and  of  these  two-year- 
old  seeds  many  will  not  germinate. 
During  the  next  season  some  old 
seeds  will  |)roduce  plants,  but  the 
number  will  be  very  much  dimin- 
ished. If  care  be  exercised  to  prevent  the  pigweed  from 
seeding  again,  and  the  same  watchfulness  be  continued  for 
a  few  seasons,  this  weed  will  be  almost  entirely  driven  from 
our  fields. 

A  plant  like  the  pigweed,  which  lives  only  one  year,  is 
called  an  annual  and  is  one  of  the  easiest  weeds  to  destroy. 


Fig.  56.   PicwKKi) 


70 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Mustard,  plantain,  chess,  dodder,  cockle,  crab  grass,  and 
Jimson  weed  are  a  few  of  our  most  disagreeable  annual  weeds. 
The  best  time  to  kill  any  weed  is  when  it  is  ver}-  small ; 
therefore  the  ground  in  early  spring  should  be  constantly 
stirred  in  order  to  kill  the  young  weeds  before  they  grow  to 

be  strong  and  hardy. 

The  wild  carrot  dif- 

^rtj^  "-:-  '-^■-  -r^^'^:ii^^  f ers  from  an  annual 

in  this  way  :  it  lives 
throughout  one  whole 
year  without  produc- 
ing seeds.  During  its 
first  year  it  accumu- 
lates a  quantity  of 
nourishment  in  the 
root,  then  rests  in  the 
winter.  Throughout 
the  following  sum- 
^^2L       T.^^^  I     ^  mer  it  uses  this  nour- 

ishment rapidly  to 
produce  its  flowers 
and  seeds.  Then  the 
plant    dies.      Plants 

that  live  through  two 
Fig.  57.  Wild  Carrot  ^^^^^^^    .^^   ^^-^   ^^.^^ 

are  called  biennials.  Weeds  of  this  kind  may  be  destroyed 
by  cutting  the  roots  below  the  leaves  with  a  grubbing-hoe  or 
spud.  A  spud  may  be  described  as  a  chisel  on  a  long  handle 
(see  Fig.  58).  If  biennials  are  not  cut  low  enough  they  will 
branch  out  anew  and  make  many  seeds.  Among  the  most 
common  biennials  are  the  thistle,  moth  mullein,  wild  carrot, 
wild  parsnip,  and  burdock. 


THE  PLANT 


71 


A  third  group  of  weeds  consists  of  those  that  live  for  more 
than  two  years.  These  weeds  are  usually  most  difficult  to 
kill.  They  propagate  by  means  of  running  rootstocks  as 
well  as  by  seeds.  Plants  that 
live  more  than  two  seasons 
are  known  as  perennials  and 


Fig.  58.   A  Spud 


Fig.  59.    Hoi'ND's  Tongue 


include,  for  example,  many  grasses,  dock,  Canada  thistle, 
poison  i\y,  passion  flower,  horse  nettle,  etc.  There  are  many 
methods  of  destroying  perennial  weeds.  They  may  be  dug 
entirely  out  and  removed.  Sometimes  in  small  areas  they 
may  be  killed  by  crude  sulphuric  acid  or  may  be  starved 
by  covering  them  with  boards  or  a  straw  stack  or  in  some 
other  convenient  way.    A  method  that  is  very-  effective  is 


72 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


to  smother  the  weeds  by  a  dense  gro\\th  of  some  other 
plant,  for  example,  cowpeas  or  buckwheat.  Co\^-peas  are  to 
be  preferred,  since  they  also  enrich  the  soil  by  the  nitrogen 

that  the  root-tubercles 
gather. 

\\'eeds  do  injur}-  in 
numerous  ways ;  they 
shade  the  crop,  steal 
its  nourishment,  and 
waste  its  moisture. 
Perhaps  their  only  serv- 
ice is  to  make  lazy 
people  till  their  crops. 


EXERCISE 

You    should    learn    to 

know  by  name  the  twenty 

worst  weeds  of  your  \-i- 

cinitA'    and    to    recognize 

their  seeds.     If  there  are 

any   weeds    you   are   not 
Fig.  6o.   Canada  Thistle  ii     ^  •  j 

able  to  recognize,  send  a 

sample  of  each  to  your  state  experiment  station.     Make  a  collection, 

properl)^  labeled,  of  weeds  and  weed  seeds  for  your  school. 


SECTION   XXI.    SEED   PURITY  AND  YITALITY 

Seeds  produce  plants.  The  difference  between  a  large  and 
a  small  yield  ma)^  depend  upon  the  kind  of  plants  we  raise, 
and  the  kind  of  plant  in  turn  is  dependent  upon  the  seeds 
that  we  sow. 

Two  things  are  important  in  the  selection  of  seeds  — 
purity  and  \-italit}\    Seeds  should  he  pure;  that  is,  when  sown 


THE  PLANT  73 

they  should  produce  no  other  plant  than  the  one  that  we  wish 
to  raise.  They  should  be  able  to  grow.  The  ability  of  a  seed 
to  grow  is  termed  its  vitality.  Good  seed  should  be  nearly  or 
quite  pure  and  should  possess  high  vitality.  The  vitality  of 
seeds  is  expressed  as  a  per  cent ;  for  example,  if  97  seeds 
out  of  100  germinate,  or  sprout,  the  vitality  is  said  to  be  97. 
The  older  the  seed  the  less  is  its  vitality,  except  in  a  few 
rare  instances  in  which  seeds  cannot  germinate  under  two 
or  three  years. 

Cucumber  seeds  may  show  90  per  cent  vitality  when  they 
are  one  year  old,  75  per  cent  when  two  years  old,  and  70 
per  cent  when  three  years  old  —  the  per  cent  of  vitality 
diminishing  with  increase  of  years.  The  average  length  of 
life  of  the  seeds  of  cultivated  plants  is  short :  for  example,  the 
tomato  lives  four  years  ;  corn,  two  years  ;  the  onion,  two  years  ; 
the  radish,  five  years.  The  cucumber  seed  may  retain  life  after 
ten  years  ;  but  the  seeds  of  this  plant  too  lose  their  vitality 
with  an  increase  in  years. 

It  is  important  when  buying  seeds  to  test  them  for  purity 
and  vitality.  Dealers  who  are  not  honest  often  sell  old  seeds, 
although  they  know  that  seeds  decrease  in  value  with  age. 
Sometimes,  however,  to  cloak  dishonesty  they  mix  some  new 
seeds  with  the  old,  or  bleach  old  and  yellow  seeds  in  order  to 
make  them  resemble  fresh  ones. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  that  all  seeds  bought  of  dealers 
should  be  thoroughly  examined  and  tested  ;  for  if  they  do 
not  grow,  we  not  only  pay  for  that  which  is  useless  but  we 
are  also  in  great  danger  of  producing  so  few  plants  in  our 
fields  that  we  shall  not  get  full  use  of  the  land,  and  thus  we 
may  suffer  a  more  serious  loss  than  merely  paying  for  a  few 
dead  seeds.  It  will  therefore  be  both  interesting  and  profit- 
able to  learn  how  to  test  the  vitality  of  seeds. 


74 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


To  test  vitalit}-  plant  one  hundred  seeds  in  a  pot  of  earth 
or  in  damp  sand,  or  place  them  between  moist  pieces  of  flan- 
nel, and  take  care  to  keep  them  moist  and  warm.  Count  those 
that  germinate  and  thus  determine  the  percentage  of  \itality. 
Germinating  between  flannel  is  much  quicker  than  planting 
in  earth.  Care  should  be  used  to  keep  mice  away  from  ger- 
minating seeds.    (See  Fig.  6i.) 

Sometimes  the  appearance  of  a  package  wall  show-  whether 
the  seed  has  been  kept  in  stock  a  long  time.  It  is,  however, 
much  more  difficult  to  find  out  whether  the  seeds  are  pure. 
You  can  of  course  easily  distinguish  seeds  that  differ  much 
from  those  you  wish  to  plant,  but  often  certain  weed  seeds 


A  B 

Fig.  6i.    A  Seed-Germinator 
Consisting  of  two  soup  plates,  some  sand,  and  a  piece  of  cloth 

are  so  nearly  like  certain  crop  seeds  as  not  to  be  easily  recog- 
nized by  the  eye.  Thus  the  dodder  or  "  love  vine,"  which 
so  often  ruins  the  clover  crop,  has  seeds  closely  resembling 
clover  seeds.  The  chess,  or  cheat,  has  seeds  so  nearly  like 
oats  that  only  a  close  observer  can  tell  them  apart.  However, 
if  you  watch  the  seeds  that  you  buv,  and  study  the  appear- 
ance of  crop  seeds,  you  may  become  expert  in  recognizing 
those  that  have  no  place  in  your  planting. 

One  case  is  reported  in  which  a  seed-dealer  intentionally 
allowed  an  impurit)'  of  30  per  cent  to  remain  in  the  crop 
seeds,  and  this  impurit}^  was  mainly  of  weed  seeds.  There 
were  450,000  of  one  kind  and  288,000  of  another  in  each 


THE  PLANT 


75 


pound  of  seed.   Think  of  planting  weeds  at  that  rate  !  Some- 
times three  fourths  of  the  seeds  you  buy  are  weed  seeds. 

In  purchasing  seeds  the  only  safe  plan  is  to  buy  of  dealers 
whose  reputation  can  be  relied  upon. 

It  not  seldom  happens  that  seeds,  like  corn,  are  stored  in 
open  cribs  or  barns  before  the  moisture  is  entirely  dried  out 
of  the  seeds.  Such  seeds  are  liable  to  be  frozen  during  a 
severe  winter,  and  of 
course  if  this  happens 
they  will  not  sprout 
the  following  spring. 
The  only  way  to  tell 
whether  such  seeds 
have  been  killed  is  to 
test  samples  of  them 
for  vitality.  Testing 
is  easy  ;  replanting  is 
costly  and  often  results 
in  a  short  crop. 


Impurities  in  Seeds 


EXERCISE  1  2 

Examine  seeds  both  for  Fig.  62 

vitality  and  purity.  Write 
for  farmers'  bulletins  on 
both  these  subjects.  What 
would  be  the  loss  to  a 
farmer  who  planted  a  ten- 
acre  clover  field  with  seeds 

that  were  80  per  cent  bad  t  Can  you  recognize  the  seeds  of  the  prin- 
cipal cultivated  plants.?  Germinate  some  beet  seeds.  What  per  cent 
comes  up  ?  Can  you  explain  ?  Collect  for  your  school  as  many  kinds 
of  wild  and  cultivated  seeds  as  you  can. 


Tube  I  represents  one  pound  of  redtop  grass  as 
bought ;  Tube  2,  amount  of  pure  redtop  grass  seeds 
in  Tube  i ;  Tube  3,  amount  of  chaff  and  dirt  in 
Tube  I  ;  Tube  4,  amount  of  weed  seeds  in  Tube  i  ; 
Tube  5,  amount  of  total  waste  in  Tube  i  ;  Tube  6, 
amount  of  pure  germinable  seeds  in  Tube  i 


CHAPTER  IV 
HOW  TO  RAISE  A  FRUIT  TREE 

Let  each  pupil  grow  an  apple  tree  this  year  and  attempt 
to  make  it  the  best  in  his  neighborhood.  In  your  attempt 
suppose  you  tr\'  the  following  plan.  In  the  fall  take  the 
seed  of  an  apple  —  a  crab-apple  is  good  —  and  keep  it  in  a 
cool  place  during  the  winter.  The  simplest  way  to  do  this  is* 
to  bun-  it  in  damp  sand.  In  the  spring  plant  it  in  a  rich, 
loose  soil. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  of  the  young  shoot  as  soon  as 
it  appears  above  the  ground.  You  want  to  make  it  grow  as 
tall  and  as  straight  as  possible  during  this  first  3'ear  of  its 
life,  hence  vou  should  give  it  rich  soil  and  protect  it  from 
animals.  Before  the  ground  freezes  in  the  fall  take  up  the 
young  tree  with  the  soil  that  was  around  it  and  keep  it  all 
winter  in  a  cool,  damp  place. 

Now  when  spring  comes  it  will  not  do  to  set  out  the 
carefully  tended  tree,  for  an  apple  tree  from  seed  will  not 
be  a  tree  like  its  parent,  but  will  tend  to  resemble  a  more 
distant  ancestor.  The  distant  ancestor  that  the  3-oung  apple 
tree  is  most  likely  to  take  after  is  the  wild  apple,  which  is 
small,  sour,  and  otherwise  far  inferior  to  the  fruit  we  wish 
to  grow.  It  makes  little  difference,  therefore,  what  kind  of 
apple  seed  we  plant,  since  in  any  event  we  cannot  be  sure 
that  the  tree  grown  from  it  will  bear  fruit  worth  ha\-ing 
unless  we  force  it  to  do  so. 

76 


Fig.  6;.   A  Vuu.ng  Fklu-Gkowkk 


77 


78 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


SECTION  XXII.    GR.\FTIXG 

By  a  process  known  as  grafting  you  can  force  your  tree 
to  produce  whatever  variety  of  apple  you  desire.  Many 
people  raise  fmit  trees  directly  from  seed  without  grafting. 
Thus  they  often  produce  really  worthless  trees.  By  grafting 
they  would  make  sure  not  only  of  ha\'ing  good  trees  rather 
than  poor  ones  but  also  of  having  the  particular  kind  of  fruit 

that  they  wish.    Hence  you  must 
now  graft  your  tree. 

First  you  must  decide  what  va- 
riet}'  of  apple  you  want  to  grow  on 
the  tree.  The  Magnum  Bonum 
is  a  great  favorite  as  a  fall  apple. 
The  Wlnesap  is  a  good  winter  apple, 
while  the  Red  Astrachan  is  a  profit- 
able early  apple,  especially  in  the 
lowland  of  the  coast  region.  The 
Northern  Spy,  ^sop,  and  Spitz- 
enburg  are  also  admirable  kinds. 
Possibly  some  other  apple  that  you 
know  may  suit  your  taste  and  needs 
better  than  any  of  these  varieties. 
If  vou  have  decided  to  raise  an  ^-Esop  or  a  Magnum 
Bonum  or  a  Winesap,  you  must  now  cut  a  twig  from  the 
tree  of  your  choice  and  graft  it  upon  the  little  tree  that 
you  have  raised.  Choose  a  twig  that  is  about  the  thickness 
of  the  young  tree  at  the  point  where  you  wish  to  graft. 
Be  careful  to  take  the  shoot  from  a  vigorous,  healthy  part 
of  the  tree. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  you  may  join  the  chosen 
shoot  or  twig  upon  the  young  tree,  but  perhaps  the  best 


Fig.  64.   Tongue  Grafting 


HOW  TO  RAISE  A  FRUIT  TREE 


79 


Fig.  65 
A  Completed  Graft 


one  for  you  to  use  is  known  as  tongue  grafting.  This  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  64.  The  upper  part,  b,  which  is  the  shoot 
or  twig  that  you  cut  from  the  tree,  is 
known  as  the  scion;  the  lower  part,  a, 
which  is  the  original  tree,  is  called  the 
stock. 

Cut  the  scion  and  stock  as  shown  in 
Fig.  64.  Join  the  cut  end  of  the  scion 
to  the  cut  end  of  the  stock.  When  you 
join  them,  notice  that  under  the  bark  of 
each  there  is  a  thin  layer  of  soft,  juicy 
tissue.  This  is  called  the  canibinm.  To 
make  a  successful  graft  the  cambium  in 
the  scion  must  exactly  join  the  cambium 
in  the  stock.  Be  careful,  then,  to  see  that 
cambium  meets  cambium.  You  now  see 
Showing  scion  and  stock    ^^.j-jy  grafting  cau  be  more  successfully 

from  which  it  was  made 

done  if  you  select  a 
scion  and  stock  of  nearly  the  same  size. 

After  fitting  the  parts  closely  together, 
bind  them  with  cotton  yam  (see  Fig.  65) 
that  has  been  coated  with  grafting  wax. 
This  wax  is  made  of  equal  parts  of  tallow, 
beeswax,  and  linseed  oil.  Smear  the  wax 
thoroughly  over  the  whole  joint,  and  make 
sure  that  the  joint  is  completely  air-tight. 

The  best  time  to  make  this  graft  is  when 
scion  and  stock  are  dormant,  that  is,  when 
they  are  not  in  leaf.    During  the  winter.    To  make  a  root  graft,  cut 
say  in  Februan,',  is  the  best  time  to  graft    ^  °"s  '  ^  ^  ^"""s 
the  tree.     Set  the  grafted  tree  away  again  in  damp  sand 
until  spring,  then  plant  it  in  loose,  rich  soil. 


8o 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Since  all  parts  growing  above  the  graft 
will  be  of  the  same  kind  as  the  scion, 
while  all  branches  below  it  will  be  like 
the  stock,  it  is  well  to  graft  low  on  the 
stock  or  even  upon  the  root  itself.  The 
slanting  double  line  in  Fig.  66  shows 
the  proper  place  to  cut  off  for  such 
grafting. 

If  you  like  you  may  sometime  make 
the  interesting  and  valuable  experiment 
of  grafting  scions  from  various  kinds  of 
apple  trees  on  the  branches  of  one  stock. 
In  this  way  you  can  secure  a  tree  bearing 
a  number  of  kinds  of  fruit.  You  may 
thus  raise  the  l^onum.  Red  Astrachan, 
Wlnesap,  and  as  many  other  varieties  of  apples  as  you  wish, 
upon  one  tree.  For  this  experiment,  however,  you  will  find 
it  better  to  resort  to  cleft  grafting,  which  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  68. 

Luther  Burbank,  the  originator  of  the  Burbank  potato,  in 
attempting  to  find  a  variety  of  apple  suited  to  the  climate 


Fig.  67.    A  Com- 
I'LETED  Root  Graft 


h      V  f 

Fig.  6S.   Clf.ft  Grafting 


HOW  TO  RAISE  A  FRUIT  TREE 


8i 


of  California,  grafted  more  than  five 
hundred  kinds  of  apple  scions  on  one 
tree,  so  that  he  might  watch  them  side 
by  side  and  find  out  which  kind  was 
best  suited  to  that  state. 

SECTION  XXIII.    BUDDING 

If,   instead   of   an    apple   tree,   you 
were  raising  a  plum  or  a  peach  tree,  a 
form  of  propagation  known  as  budding 
would  be  better  than  grafting.    Occa- 
sionally budding  is  also  employed  for 
apples,    pears,    cherries,   oranges,   and 
lemons.     Budding  is  done  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner,    A  single  bud  is  cut   F'^'-  69-  How  to  cut  a 
from  the  scion   and   is  then  inserted       ^'"'^  ''^''^'  -^  ^^''''^' 
under  the  bark  of  a  one-year-old  peach  seedling,  so  that  the 
cambium  of  the  bud  and  stock  may  grow  together. 

Cut  scions  of  the  kind  of  fruit  tree  you  desire  from  a  one- 
year-old  twig  of  the  same  variet}-.    \\>ap  them  in  a  clean, 


B  D 

Fig.  70.   The  Steps  in  Blddixg 


82 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


moist  cloth  until  you  are  ready  to  use  them.    Just  before 

using  cut  the  bud  from  the  scion,  as  shown  in  Fig.  69, 
I  This  bud  is  now  ready  to  be  inserted  on  the 

north  side  of  the  stock,  just  two  or  three 
inches  above  the  ground.  The  north  side  is 
selected  to  avoid  the  sun.  Xow,  as  shown  at 
a  in  Fig.  70,  make  a  cross  and  an  up-and- 
dowa  incision,  or  cut,  on  the  stock ;  pull  the 
bark  back  carefully,  as  shown  in  B\  insert 
the  bud  C  as  shown  in  D ;  then  fold  the 
bark  back  and  wrap  with  yam  or  raffia,  as 
shown  in  E.  As  soon  as  the  bud  and  branches 
have  united,  remove  the  \ATapping  to  prevent 
its  cutting  the  bark  and  cut  the  tree  back 
Fig.  71  close  to  the  bud,  as  in  Fig.  71,  so  as  to  force 

Sloping  line  shows   nourishment  into  the  inserted  bud. 

where  to  cut  tree         Budding    is    donc    in    the    field    ^nthout 

disturbing   the    tree    as    it    stands    in   the 

ground.     The  best  time  to  do  budding  is 

during  the  summer  or  fall  months,  when 

the  bark  is  loose  enough  to  allow  the  buds 

to  be  easily  inserted. 

Trees  may  be  budded  or  grafted  on  one 

another  only  when  they  are  nearly  related. 

Thus  the  apple,  crab-apple,  ha\\thorn,  and 

quince   are   all   related   closely  enough  to 

graft  or  bud  on   one  another ;    the  pear 

grows  on  some  hawthorns,  but  not  well  on  p-j^  _, 

an  apple  ;  some  chestnuts  will  unite  with      Lines  show  where 

some  kinds  of  oaks.  to  trim 

By  using  any  of  these  methods  you  can  succeed  in  getting 

with  certaintv  the  kind  of  tree  that  vou  desire. 


BOTH   liLsV    :>iuKlNo   All  Li-ci 


HOW  TO  RAISE  A  FRUIT  TREE 


83 


SECTION   XXIV.    PLAXTIXG  AXD   PRUXIXG 

The  apple  tree  that  you  grafted  should  be  set  out  in  the 
spring.    Dig  a  hole  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter  where  you 

wish  the  tree  to  grow.  Place  the 
tree  in  the  hole  and  be  ver)- 
careful  to  preserxe  all  the  fine 
roots.  Spread  the  roots  out  fully, 
water  them,  and  pack  fine,  rich 
soil  firmly  about  them.  Place 
stakes  about  the  voung  tree  to 
protect  it  from  injury.  If  the 
spot  selected  is  in  a  windy  loca- 
tion, incline  the  tree  slightly 
toward  the  prevailing  wind. 

You  must  prune  the  tree  as 
it  grows.  The  object  of  prun- 
ing is  to  give  the  tree  proper 
shape  and  to  promote  fruit- 
bearing:.    If  the  bud  at  the  end 


vV  :il  ,N*^Vi 


Fig. 73 

Present  shape  comes  from  pruning 

of  the  main  shoot  grows,  you  will 
have  a  tall,  cone-shaped  tree.  If, 
however,  the  end  of  the  }oung 
tree  be  cut  or  "  headed  back  "  to 
the  lines  shown  in  Fig.  72.  the 
buds  below  this  point  will  be  forced 
to  grow  and  make  a  tree  like  that 
shown  m  Fig.  73.  The  proper 
height  of  heading  for  different 
fruits  varies.  For  the  apple  tree  a 
heio;ht  of  tvvo  or  three  feet  is  best. 


*^c^*i^i 


Fig.  74 

Correct  shape 


84 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Cutting  an  end  bud  of  a  shoot  or  branch  ahvays  sends  the 
nourishment  and  growth  into  the  side  buds.  Trimming  or 
pinching  off  the  side  buds  throws  the  growth  into  the  end 
bud.  You  can  therefore  cause  your  tree  to  take  almost  any 
shape  you  desire.  The  difference  between  the  trees  shown  in 
Figs.  T^  and  74  is  entirely  the  result  of  pruning.  Fig.  74 
illustrates  in  general  a  correctly  shaped  tree.  It  is  evenly 
balanced,  admits  light  freely,  and  yet  has  enough  foliage  to 


Fig.  75 

Unthinned 


w|tdl*fc¥;;;:' 


Fig.  76 

Properly  thinned 


prevent  sun-scald.  Figs,  75  and  y^  show  the  effect  of 
wisel}'  thinning  the  branches. 

The  best  time  to  prune  is  either  in  the  winter  or  be- 
fore the  buds  start  in  the  spring.  Winter  pruning  tends  to 
favor  wood-production,  while  summer  pruning  lessens  wood- 
production  and  induces  fruitage. 

Each  particular  kind  of  fruit  requires  special  pruning ;  for 
example,  the  peach  should  be  made  to  assume  the  shape 
illustrated  in  Fig.  ']'].  This  is  done  by  successive  trim- 
mings, following  the  plan  illustrated  in  Figs.  71,  78,  79.  You 
will  gain  several  advantages  from  these  trimmings.     First, 


HOW  TO  R_\ISE  A  FRUIT  TREE 


85 


nourishment  will  be  forced  into  the  peach  bud  that  you  set  on 
vour  stock.  This  will  secure  a  \igorous  growth  of  the  scion. 
By  a  second  trimming  take  off  the  "heel  "  (Fig.  78,  //)  close 
to  the  tree,  and  thus  prevent  decay  at  this  point.  One  year 
after  budding  you  should  reduce  the 
tree  to  a  '"whip,"  as  in  Fig.  79,  by 
trimming  at  the  dotted  line  in  Fig. 
78.  This  establishes  the  "  head  '"  of 
the  tree,  which  in  the  case  of  the 
peach  should  be  ver}-  low,  —  about 


Fig.  77.   The  Customary  Way 
of  pruning  .\  i*e.\ch 


Fig.  7S.  Two-Vear- 

Old  Tree 

Cut  off  heel,  h 


sixteen  inches  from  the  ground,  —  in  order  that  a  low  foliage 
may  lessen  the  danger  of  sun-scald  to  the  main  trunk. 

In  pruning  never  leave  a  stump  such  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  78,  //,  Such  a  stump,  ha\-ing  no  source  of  nourishment, 
will  heal  ver\-  slowly  and  with  great  danger  of  decay.  If 
this  heel  is  cleanly  cut  on  the  line  ch  (Fig.  78),  the  wound 


86 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


.J 


>j.' 


Fig.  79.   Three- 
Year-Old  Tree 

CUT   BACK 


will  heal  rapidly  and  with  little  danger  of  decay.    Leaving 

such  a  stump  endangers  the  soundness  of  the  whole  tree. 
Fig.  80  shows  the  results  of  good  and  poor 
pruning  on  a  large  tree.  When  large  limbs 
are  removed  it  is  best  to  paint  the  cut  sur- 
face. The  paint  will  ward  off  fungous  disease 
and  thus  keep  the  tree  from  rotting  where  it 
was  cut. 

Pruning  that  leaves  large  limbs  branch- 
ing, as  in  Fig.  74,  a,  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, since  the  limbs  when  loaded  with 
fruit  or  when  beaten  by  heavy  winds  are  liable 
to  break.  Decay  is  apt  to  set  in  at  the  point 
of  breakage.    The  entrance  of  decay-fungi 

through  some  such  wound  or  through  a  tiny  crevice  at  such 

a  crotch  is  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  many  a  fruitful  tree. 
Sometimes  a  tree  will  go 

too  much  to  wood  and  too 

little    to  fruit.    This  often 

happens    in    rich   soil   and 

may  be  remedied  by  another 

kind  of  pruning  known  as 

root-p7-u7iing.    This  consists 

in  cutting  off  a  few  of  the 

roots  in  order  to  limit  the 

food   supply  of   the    plant. 

You   ought  to  learn   more 

about  root-pruning,  however, 

before  you  attempt  it. 


Fig.  So 
Refuses  to  heal  Heals  promptly 


How  is  a  peach  tree  made?  First,  the  blossom  appears.  Then  pol- 
lination and  fertilization  occur.  The  fruit  ripens.  The  pit.  or  seed,  is 
saved.    In  the  spring  of  the  next  year  the  seed  is  planted.    The  young 


HOW  TO  RAISE  A  FRUIT  TREE 


87 


tree,  known  as  the  stock,  comes  up  quickly.  In  August  of  that  year  a 
bud  of  the  variety  which  is  wanted  is  inserted  in  the  little  stock,  near 
the  ground.  One  year  later,  in  the  spring,  the  stock  is  cut  off  just  above 
the  bud.  The  bud  throws  out  a  shoot,  which  grows  to  a  height  of  about 
six  feet,  and  in  the  fall  this  little  peach  tree  is  sold  as  a  one-year-old 
tree.     However,  as  is  seen,  the  root  is  two  years  old. 

How  is  an  apple  tree  made.'  The  seeds  are  saved  in  the  fall  of  one 
year  and  planted  the  following  year.  The  seedlings  of  the  apple  do  not 
g^row  so  rapidlv  as  those  of  the  peach.    .At  the  end  of  the  vear  thev  are 


K;i..  51.     ReAI'V    10    BEAK 

taken  up  and  sorted,  and  in  the  following  spring  they  are  planted.  In 
July  or  August  they  are  budded.  In  the  spring  of  the  ne.xt  year  the 
stock  is  cut  off  above  the  bud.  and  the  bud-shoot  grows  three  or  four 
feet.  One  year  later  the  shoot  branches  and  the  top  begins  to  form  ;  and 
in  the  fall  of  the  following  year  the  tree  may  be  sold  as  a  two-year-old, 
although  most  persons  prefer  to  buy  it  a  year  later  as  a  three-year-old. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  West,  the  litde  seedling 
is  grafted  in  the  second  winter,  in  a  grafdng  room,  and  the  young 
grafts  are  set  in  the  nursery  row  in  the  spring  to  complete  their  growth. 
The  planting  in  the  orchard  of  the  young  peach  and  the  young  apple 
tree  is  done  in  practically  the  same  way.  After  the  hole  for  the  tree  has 
been  dug  and  after  proper  soil  has  been  provided,  the  roots  should  be 
spread  and  the  soil  carefully  packed  around  them. 


88  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

EXERCISE 

Do  you  know  an)'  trees  in  your  neighborhood  that  bear  both  wild  and 
budded  or  grafted  fruit?  What  are  the  chief  varieties  of  apples  grown 
in  your  neighborhood  ?  grapes  ?  currants  ?  plums  ?  cherries  ?  figs  ?  What 
is  a  good  apple  tree  worth  ?  Is  there  any  land  near  by  that  could  support 
a  tree  and  is  not  now  doing  so  ?  Examine  several  orchards  and  see 
whether  the  trees  have  the  proper  shape.  Do  you  see  any  evidence  of 
poor  pruning?  Do  )'OU  find  any  heels?  Can  you  see  any  place  where 
heels  have  resulted  in  rotten  or  hollow  trees?  How  could  you  have 
prevented  this?  Has  the  removal  of  branches  ever  resulted  in  serious 
decay?    How  is  this  to  be  prevented? 

If  your  home  is  not  well  stocked  with  all  the  principal  kinds  of  fruit, 
do  you  not  want  to  propagate  and  attend  to  some  of  each  kind?  You 
will  be  surprised  to  find  how  quickly  trees  will  bear  and  how  soon  you 
will  be  eating  fruit  from  your  own  planting.  Growing  your  own  trees 
will  make  you  feel  proud  of  your  skill. 


CHAPTER  V 

HORTICULTURE 

SECTION  XXV.    MARKET-GARDENING 

The  word  Jiojiicnltiirc  is  one  of  those  broad  words  under 
which  much  is  grouped.  It  includes  the  cultivation  of  orchard 
fruits,  such  as  apples  and  plums  ;  of  small  fruits,  such  as 
strawberries  and  raspberries  ;  of  garden  vegetables  for  the 
table  ;  of  flowers  of  all  sorts,  including  shrubbery  and  orna- 
mental trees  and  their  arrangement  into  beautiful  landscape 
effects  around  our  homes.  Horticulture  then  is  a  name  for 
an  art  that  is  both  far-reaching  and  important. 

The  word  gardciiing  is  generally  given  to  that  part  of 
horticulture  which  has  for  its  chief  aim  the  raising  of  vege- 
tables for  our  tables. 

Flower-gardening,  or  the  cultivation  of  plants  valued  for 
their  bloom  in  making  ornamental  beds  and  borders  and  fur- 
nishing flowers  for  the  decoration  of  the  home,  is  generally 
called  jJoricnlturc.  Landscape-gardening  is  the  art  of  so 
arranging  flower-beds,  grass,  shrubber}-,  and  trees  as  to  pro- 
duce pleasing  effects  in  the  grounds  surrounding  our  homes 
and  in  great  public  parks  and  pleasure  grounds. 

Landscape-gardening,  like  architecture,  has  developed  into 
a  great  art  and  is  now  regarded  as  one  of  the  so-called  "  fine 
arts,"  that  is,  arts  that  require  taste,  education,  and  refine- 
ment. The  landscape-gardener  forms  pictures  in  nature  just 
as  the  artist  makes  them  on  canvas,  but  uses  natural  objects 
in  his  pictures  instead  of  paint  and  canvas. 

89 


90 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Market-Gardening.  Formerly  market-gardening  was  done 
on  small  tracts  of  land  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  large 
cities,  where  supplies  of  stable  manure  could  be  used  from 
the  city  stables.  But  with  the  great  increase  in  the  popula- 
tion of  the  cities,  these  small  areas  could  no  longer  supply 
the  demand,  and  the  introduction  of  commercial  fertilizers 
and  the  building  of   railroads   enabled   gardeners  at  great 


Fig.  82.    Strawberry-Growing  is  an  Art 


distances  from  city  markets  to  grow  and  ship  their  products. 
Hence  the  markets,  even  in  winter,  are  now  supplied  with 
fresh  vegetables  from  regions  where  there  is  no  frost.  Then, 
as  spring  opens,  fruits  and  vegetables  are  shipped  from  more 
temperate  regions.  Later  vegetables  and  fruits  come  from 
the  sections  nearer  the  great  cities.  This  gradual  nearing  of 
the  supply  fields  continues  until  the  gardens  near  the  cities 
can  furnish  what  is  needed. 


HORTICULTURE 


91 


The  market-gardeners  around  the  great  Northern  cities, 
finding  that  winter  products  were  coming  from  the  South 
and  from  warmer  regions,  began  to  build  hothouses  and  b\- 
means  of  steam  and  hot-water  pipes  to  make  warm  cUmates 
in  these  glass  houses.  Many  acres  of  land  in  the  colder 
sections  of  the  country-  are  covered  with  heated  glass  houses, 
and  in  them  during  the  \\"inter  are  produced  fine  crops  of 
tomatoes,  lettuce,  radishes,  cauliflowers,  eggplants,  and  other 
vegetables.  The 
degree  of  perfec- 
tion which  these 
attain  in  spite  of 
ha\ing  such  arti- 
ficial culture,  and 
their  freshness  as 
compared  to  the 
products  brought 
from  a  great  dis- 
tance, have  made 
winter  gardening 
under  glass  a  ver\- 
profitable  business. 
But  it  is  a  busi- 
ness that  calls  for  the  highest  skill  and  the  closest  attention, 

Xo  garden,  even  for  home  use,  is  complete  without  some 
glass  sashes,  and  the  garden  will  be  all  the  more  successful 
if  there  is  a  small  heated  greenhouse  for  starting  plants  that 
are  afterwards  to  be  set  in  the  garden. 

Hotbeds.  If  there  is  no  greenhouse,  a  hotbed  is  an 
important  help  in  the  garden.  The  bed  is  made  bv  dig- 
ging a  pit  two  feet  deep,  seven  feet  wide,  and  as  long  as 
necessar)-. 


Fig.  S3.    Setiing  Plants  in  a  Cold-Fr.\me 


92 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


The  material  for  the  hotbed  is  fresh  horse  manure  mixed 

with  leaves.    This  is  thrown  into  a  heap  to  heat.    As  soon  as 

steam  is  seen  coming  from  the  heap  the  manure  is  turned 

over  and  piled  again  so  that  the  outer  part  is  thrown  inside. 

When  the  whole  is  uniformly  heated  and  has  been  turned 

two  or  three  times,  it  is  packed  firmly  into  the  pit  already  dug. 

A  frame  six  feet 

wide,  twelve  inches 

high  on  the  north 

side      and      eight 

inches  on  the  south 

side  and  as  long  as 

the  bed  is  to  be,  is 

now  made  of  plank. 

This    is    set  upon 

the  heated  manure, 

thus     leaving     six 

inches  on  each  side 

outside  the  frame. 

More    manure    is 

then     banked     all 

around  it,  and  three 

or  four  inches   of 

fine  light  and  rich 

soil  are  placed  in- 
F,G.  84.    The  Gladiolus  ^.^^  ^^^  ^^^^^_ 

The  frame  is  then  covered  with  hotbed  sashes  six  feet 
long  and  three  feet  wide.  These  slide  up  and  down  on  strips 
of  wood  let  into  the  sides  of  the  frame.  A  thermometer 
is  stuck  into  the  soil  and  closely  watched,  for  there  will  be 
too  much  heat  at  first  for  sowing  seed.  When  the  heat  in 
the  early  morning  is  about  85°,  seeds  may  be  sowed.    The 


HORTICULTURE  93 

hotbed  is  used  for  starting  tomato  plants,  eggplants,  cabbage 
plants,  and  other  vegetables  that  cannot  stand  exposure.  It 
should  be  made  about  eight  or  ten  weeks  before  the  tender 
plants  can  be  set  out  in  the  localit}\  In  the  South  and  South- 
west it  should  be  started  earlier  than  in  the  North.  For 
growing  the  best  tomato  plants,  and  for  such  hardv  plants  as 
lettuce  and  cabbage,  it  \^^ll  be  better  to  have  cold-frames  in 
addition  to  the  hotbed  ;  these  need  not  be  more  than  t\^o  or 
three  sashes. 

Cold-Frames.  A  cold-frame  is  like  the  frame  used  for  a 
hotbed,  but  it  is  placed  on  well-manured  soil  in  a  sheltered 
spot.    It  is  covered  \\-ith  the  same  kind  of  sashes  and  is  used 


Fig.  85.  :  -  ; 

for  hardening  the  plants  sowed  in  the  hotbed.  The  frame 
must  be  well  banked  with  earth  on  the  outside,  and  the 
glass  must  be  covered  on  cold  nights  \\ith  straw,  mats,  or 
old  carpets  to  keep  out  frost. 

Care  of  Hotbed  and  Cold-Frame.  If  the  sun  be  allowed  to 
shine  brightly  on  the  glass  of  a  cold-frame  or  hotbed,  it  will 
soon  raise  the  temperature  in  the  hotbed  to  a  point  that  will 
destroy  the  plants.  It  is  necessan.-,  then,  to  pay  close  atten- 
tion to  the  bed  and,  when  the  sun  shines,  to  slip  the  sashes 
down  or  raise  them  and  place  a  block  under  the  upper  end  to 
allow  the  steam  to  pass  off.  The  cold-frame  also  must  be  aired 
when  the  sun  shines,   and  the  sashes  must  be  gradually 


94  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

slipped  douTi  in  mild  weather.  Finally,  they  may  be  re- 
moved entirely  on  sunshin}^  days,  so  as  to  accustom  the 
plants  to  the  open  air,  but  they  must  be  replaced  at  night. 
For  a  while  before  setting  the  plants  in  the  open  gardens, 
leave  the  sashes  off  night  and  day. 

While  the  hotbed  may  be  used  for  starting  plants,  it  is 
much  better  and  more  convenient  to  have  a  little  greenhouse 
with  fire  heat  for  this  purpose.    A  little  house  with  but  four 


Fig.  S6.   Greenhouse  and  Cold-Frames 

sashes  on  each  side  will  be  enough  to  start  a  great  many 
plants,  and  will  also  give  room  for  some  flowers  in  pots. 
With  such  a  house  a  student  can  learn  to  manage  a  more 
extensive  structure  if  he  gives  close  attention  to  airing, 
watering,  and  keeping  out  insects. 

Sowing.  The  time  for  sowing  the  different  kinds  of  seeds 
is  an  important  matter.  Seeds  vary  greatly  in  their  require- 
ments. All  need  three  conditions  —  a  proper  degree  of  heat, 
moisture,  and  air.     Some  seeds,  like  English  peas,  parsnips. 


HORTICULTURE 


95 


beets,  and  radishes,  will  germinate  and  grow  when  the  soil  is 
still  cool  in  the  early  spring,  and  peas  will  stand  quite  a  frost 
after  they  are  up.  Therefore  we  plant  English  peas  as  early 
as  the  ground  can  be  worked. 

But  if  we  should  plant  seeds  like  corn,  string  (or  snap) 
beans,  squashes,  and  other  tender  plants  before  the  ground 
is  warm  enough,  they  would  decay. 

Seeds  cannot  germinate  in  soil  that  is  perfectly  dr)-,  for 
there  must  be  moisture  to  swell  them  and  to  start  growth. 


Fig.  Sj.    Gathkring  and  shipping  Celery 

The  oxygen  of  the  air  is  also  necessar}^,  and  if  seeds  are 
buried  so  deeply  that  the  air  cannot  reach  them,  they  will 
not  grow,  even  if  they  are  warm  and  moist. 

The  depth  of  planting  must  var}^  with  the  character  and  size 
of  the  seed.  English  peas  may  be  covered  six  inches  deep  and 
will  be  all  the  better  for  such  covering,  but  if  corn  be  covered 
so  deep,  it  hardly  gets  above  the  ground.  In  planting  small 
seeds  like  those  of  the  radish,  cabbage,  turnip,  lettuce,  etc.,  a 
good  rule  is  to  cover  them  three  times  the  thickness  of  the  seed. 


96 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


In  sowing  seeds  when  the  ground  is  rather  dty,  it  is  a 
good  plan,  after  covering  them,  to  tramp  on  the  row  so  as 
to  press  the  soil  closely  to  the  seeds  and  to  help  it  to  retain 
moisture  for  germination,  but  do  not  pack  the  soil  if  it  is  damp. 

In  spring  never  dig  or  plow  the  garden  while  it  is  still 
wet,  but  alwavs  wait  until  the  soil  is  dr)'  enough  to  crumble 
freely. 

What  Crops  to  grow.  The  crops  to  be  raised  will  of  course 
depend    upon    each    gardener's   climate,    surroundings,   and 

markets.    Some- 


times it  may  pay 
a  grower,  if  his 
soil  and  climate 
are  particularly 
suited  to  one 
crop,  to  expend 
most  of  his  time 
and  energy  on 
this  crop  ;  for  ex- 
ample, in  some 
sections  of  New 
York,  on  pota- 
toes ;  in  parts  of 
]Michigan,  on  celery ;  in  Georgia,  on  watermelons  ;  in  west- 
em  North  Carolina,  on  cabbage.  If  circumstances  allow  this 
sort  of  gardening,  it  has  many  advantages,  for  of  course  it 
is  much  easier  to  acquire  skill  in  growing  one  crop  than  in 
growing  many. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  often  happens  that  a  gardener's 
situation  requires  him  to  grow  most  of  the  crops  known  to 
gardening.  Each  gardener  then  must  be  guided  in  his  selec- 
tion of  crops  by  his  surroundings. 


A  Large  Yield  of  Cabbages 


HORTICULTURE  97 

Care  of  Crops.  The  gardener  who  wishes  to  attain  the 
greatest  success  in  his  art  must  do  four  things  : 

First,  he  must  make  his  land  rich  and  keep  it  rich.  Much 
of  his  success  depends  on  getting  his  crops  on  the  market 
ahead  of  other  growers.  To  do  this,  his  crops  must  grow 
rapidly,  and  crops  grow  rapidly  only  in  rich  soil.  Then, 
too,  land  conveniently  situated  for  market-gardening  is  nearly 
always  costly.  Hence  the  successful  market-gardener  must 
plan  to  secure  the  largest  possible  yield  from  as  small  an 
area  as  is  practicable.  The  largest  yield  can  of  course  be 
secured  from  the  richest  land. 

Second,  the  gardener  must  cultivate  his  rich  land  most 
carefully  and  economically.  He  crowds  his  land  with  prod- 
ucts that  must  grow  apace.  Therefore  he,  least  of  all  growers, 
can  afford  to  have  any  of  his  soil  go  to  feed  weeds,  to  have 
his  land  wash,  or  to  have  his  growing  crops  suffer  for  lack  of 
timely  and  wise  cultivation.  To  cultivate  his  land  economi- 
cally the  gardener  must  use  the  best  tools  and  machines 
and  the  best  methods  of  soil  management. 

Third,  to  get  the  best  results  he  must  grow  perfect  vege- 
tables. To  do  this,  he  must  add  to  good  tillage  a  knowledge 
of  the  common  plant  diseases  and  of  the  ways  of  insects  and 
bacterial  pests  ;  he  must  know  how  and  when  to  spray,  how 
and  when  to  treat  his  seed,  how  and  when  to  poison,  how  and 
when  to  trap  his  insect  foes  and  to  destroy  their  hiding-places. 

Fourth,  not  only  must  the  gardener  grow  perfect  vegetables, 
but  he  must  put  them  on  the  market  in  perfect  condition  and 
in  attractive  shape.  Who  cares  to  buy  wilted,  bruised,  spoiling 
vegetables  ?  Gathering,  bundling,  crating,  and  shipping  are  all 
to  be  watched  carefully.  Baskets  should  be  neat  and  attractive, 
crates  clean  and  snug,  barrels  well  packed  and  well  headed. 
Careful  attention  to  all  these  details  brings  a  rich  return. 


98 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Among  the  gardener's  important  crops  are  the  follovring : 
Asparagus.  This  is  a  hard}-  plant.  Its  seed  may  be  sowed 
either  earl\-  in  the  spring  or  late  in  the  fall.  The  seeds 
should  be  planted  in  rows.  If  the  plants  are  well  cultix-ated 
during  the  spring  and  summer,  they  will  make  vigorous  roots 
for  transplanting  in  the  autumn. 

In  the  fall  prepare  a  piece  of  land  by  breaking  it  unusually 
deep  and  bv  manuring  it  heavily.  After  the  land  is  thor- 
oughly prepared,  make  in 
it  furrows  for  the  aspara- 
gus roots.  These  fur- 
rows should  be  six  inches 
deep  and  three  feet  apart. 
Then  remove  the  roots 
from  the  rows  in  which 
thev  have  been  gro\nng 
during  the  summer,  and 
set  them  t^vo  feet  apart 
in  the  prepared  furrows. 
Cover  carefully  at  once. 
In  the  follo\A"ing  spring 
the  vouns:  shoots  must  be 


59.    A  Crate  of  Asfak 


well  cultivated.  In  order  to  economize  space,  beets  or  lettuce 
may  be  grown  between  the  asparagus  rows  during  this  first 
season.  With  the  coming  of  cold  weather  the  asparagus 
must  again  be  freely  manured  and  all  dead  tops  cut  off. 
Some  plants  will  be  ready  for  market  the  second  spring. 
If  the  bed  is  kept  free  from  weeds  and  well  manured,  it 
will  increase  in  productiveness  from  year  to  year. 

Beans.  The  most  generally  planted  beans  are  those  known 
as  string,  or  snap,  beans.  Of  the  manv  varieties,  all  are  sensi- 
tive to  cold  and  hence  must  not  be  planted  until  frost  is  over. 


HORTICULTURE 


99 


Another  widely  grown  kind  of  bean  is  the  Hma,  or  butter, 
bean.  There  are  two  \-arieties  of  the  lima  bean.  One  is  large 
and  generally  grows  on  poles.  This  kind  does  best  in  the 
Xonhem  states.  The  other  is  a  small  bean  and  may  be 
grown  without  poles.  This  kind  is  best  suited  to  the  warmer 
climates  of  the  Southern  states. 

Cabbage.  In  comparatively  warm  clim.ates  the  first  crop 
of  cabbage  is  generally  grown  in  the  following  way.  The 
seeds  are  sowed  in  beds  in  September,  and  the  plants  grown 
from  this  sowing  are 
in  November  trans- 
planted to  ground 
laid  off  in  sharp 
ridges.  The  young 
plants  are  set  on 
the  south  side  of  the 
ridges  in  order  that 
they  may  be  some- 
what protected  from 
the  cold  of  winter. 
As    spring    comes 

on,  the  ridge  is  partly  cut  down  at  each  working  until  the 
field  is  leveled,  and  thereafter  the  cultivation  should  be  level. 

Early  cabbages  need  hea\y  applications  of  manure.  In  the 
spring,  nitrate  of  soda  applied  in  the  rows  is  \er\-  helpful. 

Seeds  for  the  crop  following  this  early  crop  should  be 
sowed  in  March.  Of  course  these  seeds  should  be  of  a  later 
varien-  than  the  first  used.  The  young  plants  should  be  trans- 
planted as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough.  Early  cabbages  are 
set  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  the  plants  eighteen  inches  apart 
in  the  row.  As  the  later  \-arieties  grow  larger  than  the  earlier 
ones,  the  plants  should  be  set  two  feet  apart  in  the  row. 


Fig.  90.    Cabbage  ready  for  Shipment 


lOO 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


In  growing  late  fall  and  winter  cabbage  the  time  of  sowing 
varies  with  the  climate.  For  the  Northern  and  middle  states, 
seeding  should  be  done  during  the  last  of  March  and  in  April. 
South  of  a  line  passing  west  from  \'irginia  it  is  hard  to  carr}^ 
cabbages  through  the  heat  of  summer  and  get  them  to  head 
in  the  fall.  However,  if  the  seeds  are  sowed  about  the  first 
of  August  in  rich  and  moist  soil  and  the  plants  set  in  the 
same  sort  of  soil  in  September,  large  heads  can  be  secured 

for  the  December  market. 
Celery.  In  the  extreme 
northern  part  of  our  coun- 
tr}',  celer}-  seeds  are  often 
sowed  in  a  greenhouse  or 
hotbed.  This  is  done  in 
order  to  secure  plants  early 
enough  for  summer  blanch- 
ing. This  plan,  however, 
suits  only  ver}"  cool  climates. 
In  the  middle  states  the 
seeds  are  usually  sowed  in 
a  well-prepared  bed  about 
April.  The  young  plants 
are  moved  to  other  beds  as 
soon  as  they  need  room. 
Generally  they  are  transplanted  in  July  to  rows  prepared  for 
them.  These  should  be  four  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  should 
be  set  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  celer}-  bed  should  be 
carefully  cultivated  during  the  summer.  In  the  fall,  hill  the 
stalks  up  enough  to  keep  them  erect.  After  the  growing  season 
is  over  dig  them  and  set  them  in  trenches.  The  trenches 
should  be  as  deep  as  the  celer\'  is  tall,  and  after  the  celery 
is  put  in  them  they  should  be  covered  with  boards  and  straw. 


iii 

f 

^"^^'^ 

Fig.  91. 


Celery  trimmed,  washed, 
and  bunched 


HORTICULTURE  loi 

In  the  more  southern  states,  celer)-  is  usually  grown  in  beds. 
The  beds  are  generally  made  six  feet  wide,  and  rows  a  foot 
apart  are  run  crosswise.  The  plants  are  set  six  inches  apart,  in 
September,  and  the  whole  bed  is  earthed  up  as  the  season  ad- 
vances. Finally,  when  uinter  comes  the  beds  are  covered  with 
leaves  or  straw  to  prevent  the  plants  from  freezing.  The  celer\' 
is  dug  and  bunched  for  market  at  any  time  during  the  winter. 

By  means  of  cold-frames  a  profitable  crop  of  spring  celen^ 
may  be  raised.  Have  the  plants  ready  to  go  into  the  cold- 
frames  late  in  October  or  early  in  November.  The  soil  in 
the  frame  should  be  made  ver\'  deep.  The  plants  should 
make  only  a  moderately  rapid  grouth  during  the  winter. 
In  the  early  spring  they  will  grow  rapidly  and  so  crowd  one 
another  as  to  blanch  well.  As  celery  grown  in  this  way  comes 
on  the  market  at  a  time  when  no  other  celers-  can  be  had,  it 
commands  a  good  price. 

In  climates  as  warm  as  that  of  Florida,  beds  of  celer\'  can 
be  raised  in  this  way  without  the  protection  of  cold-frames. 
A  slight  freeze  does  not  hurt  celer\-,  but  a  long-continued 
freezing  spell  will  destroy  it. 

Some  kinds  of  celer\-  seem  to  turn  white  naturallv.  These 
are  called  self-blanching  kinds.  Other  kinds  need  to  be 
banked  with  earth  in  order  to  make  the  stalks  whiten.  This 
kind  usually  gives  the  best  and  crispest  stalks. 

Cucumbers  and  Cantaloupes.  Although  cucumbers  and 
cantaloupes  are  ver\'  different  plants,  they  are  grown  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  way.  Some  gardeners  plant  them  in  hills. 
However,  this  is  perhaps  not  the  best  plan.  It  is  better  to 
lay  the  land  off  in  furrows  six  feet  apart.  After  filling  these 
with  well-rotted  stable  manure,  throw  soil  over  them.  Then 
make  the  top  flat  and  plant  the  seeds.  After  the  plants  are 
up  thin  them  out,  leaving  them  a  foot  or  more  apart  in  the 


I02 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


rows.  Cultivate  regularly  and  carefully  until  the  vines  cover 
the  entire  ground. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  cowpeas  at  the  last  working  of 
cantaloupes,  in  order  to  furnish  some  shade  for  the  melons. 
As  both  cucumbers  and  cantaloupes  are  easily  hurt  by  cold, 
they  should  not  be  planted  until  the  soil  is  warm  and  all 
danger  of  frost  is  past. 

Cucumbers  are  always  cut  while  they  are  green.  They 
should  never  be  pulled  from  the  vine,  but  should  always  be 

cut  with  a  piece  of 
■^Y      ''v^^  ^--       \^^^'       the  stem  attached. 

Cantaloupes  should 
be  gathered  before 
they  turn  yellow 
and  should  be  rip- 
ened in  the  house. 
In  some  sec- 
tions of  the  countr)^ 
the  little  striped 
'^  '^  Sdi  cucumber-beetle  at- 

FiG.  92.    Striped  CrcrMBER  Beetle  and  Larva    |^(-1^s    tJig    melons 

•^"  '"^^s^ifi^d  and  cucumbers  as 

soon  as  they  come  up.  These  beetles  are  ver\'  active,  and  if 
their  attacks  are  not  prevented  they  will  destroy  the  tender 
plants.  Bone  dust  and  tobacco  dust  applied  just  as  the  plants 
appear  above  the  ground  will  prevent  these  attacks.  This 
treatment  not  only  keeps  off  the  beetle,  but  also  helps  the 
growth  of  the  plants. 

Eggplants.  Eggplants  are  so  tender  that  they  cannot 
be  transplanted  like  tomatoes  to  cold-frames  and  gradually 
hardened  to  stand  the  cold  spring  air.  These  plants,  started 
in  a  warm  place,  must  be  kept  there  until  the  soil  to  which 


HORTICULTURE 


103 


thev  are  to  be  transplanted  is  well  warmed  by  the  advance 
of  spring.  After  the  warm  weather  has  fully  set  in,  trans- 
plant them  to  rich  soil,  setting  them  three  feet  apart  each 
way.  This  plant  needs  much  manure.  If  large,  perfect  fruit 
is  expected,  the  ground  can  hardly  be  made  too  rich. 

Eggplants  are  subject  to  the  same  bacterial  blight  that  is  so 
destructive  to  tomatoes.  The  only  way  to  prevent  this  disease 
is  to  plant  in  ground  not  lately  used  for  tomatoes  or  potatoes. 


Fig.  93.   An  Omun  Harvest 

Onions.  The  method  of  growing  onions  varies  with  the 
use  to  which  it  is  intended  to  put  them.  To  make  the  early 
sorts,  which  are  eaten  green  in  the  spring,  little  onions  called 
sfts  are  planted.  These  are  grown  from  seeds  sowed  late  in 
the  spring.  The  seeds  are  sowed  thickly  in  rows  in  rather 
poor  land.  The  object  of  selecting  poor  land  is  that  the  growth 
of  the  sets  may  be  slow.  When  the  sets  have  reached  the 
size  of  small  marbles,  they  are  ready  for  the  fall  planting. 

In  the  South  the  sets  may  be  planted  in  September. 
Plant  them  in  rows  in  rich  and  well-fertilized  soil.    They 


I04 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


wiU  be  ready  for  market  in  March  or  April.  In  the  more 
northerlv  states  the  sets  are  to  be  planted  as  early  as  possible 
in  the  spring. 

To  grow  ripe  onions  the  seeds  must  be  sowed  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  The  plants  are 
thinned  to  a  stand  of  three  inches  in  the  rows.  As  they 
grow,  the  soil  is  drawn  away  from  them  so  that  the  onions 
sit  on  top  of  the  soil  \iith  only  their  roots  in  the  earth. 


As  soon  as  the  tops  rif)en  pull  the  onions  and  let  them 
lie  in  the  sun  until  the  tops  are  dr\\  Then  put  them  under 
shelter.  As  onions  keep  best  with  their  tops  attached,  do 
not  remove  these  until  it  is  time  for  marketing. 

Peas.  The  English  pea.  is  about  the  first  vegetable  of  the 
season  to  be  planted.  It  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground 
is  in  workable  condition.  Peas  are  planted  in  rows,  and  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  stretch  wire  netting  for  them  to  climb  on.  How- 
ever, where  peas  are  extensively  cultivated  they  are  allowed 
to  fall  on  the  ground- 


HORTICULTLRE  105 

There  are  many  sorts  of  peas,  differing  both  in  quaht)'  and 
in  time  of  production.  The  first  to  be  planted  are  the  extra- 
early  varieties.  These  are  not  so  fine  as  the  later,  wrinkled 
sorts,  but  the  seeds  are  less  apt  to  rot  in  cold  ground.  Fol- 
lowing these,  some  of  the  fine,  wrinkled  sorts  are  to  be  planted 
in  regular  succession.  Peas  do  not  need  much  manure  and 
do  best  in  a  light,  warm  soil. 

Tomatoes.  There  is  no  vegetable  grown  that  is  more 
widely  used  than  the  tomato.  \\'hether  fresh  or  canned  it 
is  a  staple  article  of  food  that  can  be  sen-ed  in  manv  wavs. 

By  careful  selection  and  breeding,  the  fruit  of  the  tomato 
has  in  recent  years  been  much  improved.  There  are  now- 
many  varieties  that  produce  perfectly  smooth  and  solid  fruit, 
and  the  grower  can  hardly  go  amiss  in  his  selection  of 
seeds  if  he  bears  his  climate  and  his  particular  needs  in  mind. 

Early  tomatoes  are  started  in  the  greenhouse  or  in  the 
hotbed  about  ten  weeks  before  the  time  for  setting  the 
plants  in  the  open  ground.  They  are  transplanted  to  cold- 
frames  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to  handle.  This  is 
done  to  harden  the  plants  and  to  give  them  room  to  grow- 
strong  before  the  final  transplanting. 

In  kitchen  gardens  tomatoes  are  planted  in  row-s  four  feet 
apart  with  the  plants  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  Thev  are 
generally  trained  to  stakes  with  but  one  stalk  to  a  stake. 
When  there  is  plent}-  of  space,  however,  the  plants  are 
allow-ed  to  grow-  at  will  and  to  tumble  on  the  ground.  In 
this  way  they  bear  large  crops.  During  the  winter  the  mar- 
kets are  supplied  with  tomatoes  either  from  tropical  sections 
or  from  hothouses.  As  those  grown  in  the  hothouses  are 
superior  in  flavor  to  those  shipped  from  Florida  and  from 
the  West  Indies,  and  as  they  command  good  prices,  great 
quantities  are  grown  in  this  way. 


io6  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

In  the  South  the  bacterial  blight  which  attacks  the  plants 
of  this  family  is  a  serious  drawback  to  tomato  culture.  The 
only  way  to  escape  this  disease  is  to  avoid  planting  tomatoes 
on  land  in  w-hich  eggplants,  tomatoes,  or  potatoes  have  been 
blighted.  Lime  spread  around  the  plants  seems  to  prevent 
the  blight  for  one  season  on  some  soils. 

At  the  approach  of  frost  in  the  fall,  green  tomatoes  can 
easily  be  preserved  by  wrapping  them  in  paper.  Gather 
them  carefully  and  wrap  each  separately.  Pack  them  in 
boxes  and  store  in  a  cellar  that  is  close  enough  to  prevent 
the  freezing  of  the  fruit.  A  few  da^"s  before  the  tomatoes 
are  wanted  for  the  table  unpack  as  many  as  are  needed,  re- 
move the  paper,  and  allow  them  to  ripen  in  a  warm  room. 

Tomatoes  require  a  rich  soil.  Scattering  a  small  quantity 
of  nitrate  of  soda  around  their  roots  promotes  rapid  growth. 

Watermelons.  As  watermelons  need  more  room  than  can 
usually  be  spared  in  a  garden,  the\'  are  commonly  grown  as 
a  field  crop. 

A  \-er}-  light,  sandy  soil  suits  watermelons  best.  They  can 
be  grown  on  \er\-  poor  soil  if  a  good  supply  of  compost  be 
placed  in  each  hill.  The  land  for  the  melons  should  be  laid 
off  in  about  ten-foot  checks  ;  that  is,  the  furrows  should  cross 
one  another  at  right  angles  about  ever)'  ten  feet.  A  wide 
hole  should  be  dug  where  the  furrows  cross,  and  into  this 
composted  manure  should  be  put. 

The  best  manure  for  watermelons  is  a  compost  of  stable 
manure  and  wood-mold  from  the  forest.  Pile  the  manure 
and  wood-mold  in  alternate  layers  for  some  time  before  the 
planting-season.  During  the  winter  cut  through  the  pile 
several  times  until  the  two  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  finely 
pulverized.  Be  sure  to  keep  the  compost  heap  under  shelter. 
Compost  will  lose  in  value  if  it  is  exposed  to  rains. 


HORTICULTURE  lO/ 

At  planting-time,  put  two  or  three  shovelfuls  of  this  com- 
post into  each  of  the  prepared  holes,  and  over  the  top  of  the 
manure  scatter  a  handful  of  any  high-grade  complete  fertil- 
izer. Then  cover  fertilizer  and  manure  with  soil,  and  plant 
the  seeds  in  this  soil.  In  cultivating,  plow  both  ways  of  the 
checked  rows  and  throw  the  earth  toward  the  plants. 

Some  growers  pinch  off  the  vines  when  they  have  grown 
about  three  feet  long.  This  is  done  to  make  them  branch 
more  freely,  but  the  pinching  is  not  necessar)-. 

A  serious  disease,  the  watermelon  wilt,  is  rapidl}-  spreading 
through  melon-growing  sections.  This  disease  is  caused  by 
germs  in  the  soil,  and  the  germs  are  hard  to  kill.  If  the  wilt 
should  appear  in  your  neighborhood,  do  not  allow  any  stable 
manure  to  be  used  on  your  melon  land,  for  the  germs  are 
easily  scattered  by  means  of  stable  manure.  The  germs  also 
cling  to  the  seeds  of  diseased  melons,  and  these  seeds  bear 
the  disease  to  other  fields.  If  you  treat  melon  seeds  as  you 
are  directed  on  page  1 3  5  to  treat  oat  seeds,  the  germs  on  the 
seeds  will  be  destroyed.  By  crossing  the  watermelon  on  the 
citron  melon,  a  watermelon  that  is  resistant  to  wilt  has  recently 
been  developed  and  successfully  grown  in  soils  in  which  wilt 
is  present.  The  new  melon,  inferior  in  flavor  at  first,  is  being 
improved  from  season  to  season  and  bids  fair  to  rival  other 
melons  in  flavor. 


Flu.  93.    Dewuerries 


io8 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


SECTION   XXVI.     FLOWER  GARDENING 

The  comforts  and  joys  of  life  depend  largely  upon  small 
things.  Of  these  small  things  perhaps  none  holds  a  position 
of  greater  importance  in  countr}'  life  than  the  adornment  of 
the  home,  indoors  and  outdoors,  with  flowers  tastefullv  ar- 
ranged. Their  selection  and  planting  furnish  pleasant  recrea- 
tion ;  their  care  is  a  pleasing  employment ;  and  each  little 


Fig.  96.    Ax  Easy  Way  to  beautify  the  Hume 

plant,  as  it  sprouts  and  grows  and  develops,  may  become 
as  much  a  pet  as  creatures  of  the  sister  animal  kingdom. 
A  beautiful,  well-kept  yard  adds  greatly  to  the  pleasure  and 
attractiveness  of  a  countr}-  home.  If  a  beautiful  yard  and 
home  give  joy  to  the  mere  passer-by,  how^  much  more  must 
their  beaut)'  appeal  to  the  owners.  The  decorating  of  the 
home  shows  ambition,  pride,  and  energ}'  —  important  ele- 
ments in  a  successful  life. 


HORTICULTURE 


109 


Plant  trees  and  shrubs  in  your  yard  and  border  your 
masses  of  shrubben-  with  flower-beds.  Do  not  disfigure  a 
lawn  by  placing  a  bed  of  flowers  in  it.  Use  the  flowers 
rather  to  decorate  the  shrubben-,  and  for  borders  along 
walks,  and  in  the  comers  near  steps,  or  against  foundations. 

If  you  wish  to 
raise  flowers  for  the 
sake  of  flowers,  not 
as  decorations,  make 
the  flower-beds  in  the 
back  }ard  or  at  the 
side  of  the  house. 

Plants  may  be 
grown  from  seeds  or 
from  bulbs  or  from 
cuttings.  The  root- 
ing of  cuttings  is  an 
interesting  task  to 
all  who  are  fond  of 
flowers.  Those  who 
have  no  greenhouse 
and  who  wish  to 
root  cuttings  of  ge- 
raniums, roses,  and 
other  plants  may  do 

so  in  the  following  way.  Take  a  shallow  pan,  an  old-fashioned 
milk  pan  for  instance,  fill  it  nearly  full  of  clean  sand,  and 
then  wet  the  sand  thoroughly.  Stick  the  cuttings  thickly 
into  this  wet  sand,  set  the  pan  in  a  warm,  sunny  window, 
and  keep  the  sand  in  the  same  water-soaked  condition.  Most 
cuttings  will  root  well  in  a  few  weeks  and  may  then  be  set 
into  small  flower-pots.   Cuttings  of  tea  roses  should  have  two 


Fig.  97.   A  Back  Yard  to  refine  the 
Children  of  the  Family 


no 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


or  three  joints  and  be  taken  from  a  stem  that  has  just  made 
a  flower.  Allow  one  of  the  rose  leaves  to  remain  at  the  top  of 
the  cutting.  Stick  this  cutting  into  the  sand  and  it  will  r:*ot 
in  about  four  weeks.   Cuttings  of  Cape  jasmine  ma}"  i 

in  the  same  way.      Some    geraniums,    the   rose    _  r. 

for  example,   may  be  growTi  from   cuttings  of   '.':..    :     :s. 


J-  ;g.  o?.    Kei'l'TTIn  - 

Bulbs  are  simply  the  lower  ends  of  the  leaves  of  a  plant 
wrapped  tightly  around  one  another  and  inclosing  the  bud 
that  makes  the  future  flower-stalk.  The  h}-acinth,  the  narcis- 
sus, and  the  common  garden  onion  are  examples  of  bulbous 
plants.  The  flat  part  at  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  is  the  stem 
of  the  plant  reduced  to  a  flat  disk,  and  betv^-een  each  tn-o 
adjacent  leaves  on  this  flat  stem  there  is  a  bud,  just  as  above- 
ground  there  is  a  bud  at  the  base  of  a  leaf.  These  buds  on 
the  stem  of  the  bulb  rarely  grow,  however,  unless  fcnred  to 


HORTICULTURE 


III 


do  so  artificially.  The  number  of  bulbs  may  be  greatly  in- 
creased by  making  these  buds  grow  and  form  other  bulbs. 
In  increasing  hyacinths  the  matured  bulbs  are  dug  in  the 
spring,  and  the  under  part  of  the  flat  stem  is  carefully  scraped 
awav  to  expose  the  base  of  the  buds.  The  bulbs  are  then  put 
in  heaps  and  covered  with  sand.  In  a  few  weeks  each  bud 
has  formed  a  little  bulb. 
The  gardener  plants  the 
whole  together  to  grow 
one  season,  after  which 
the  little  bulbs  are  sepa- 
rated and  grown  into 
full-sized  bulbs  for  sale. 
Other  bulbs,  like  the 
narcissus  or  the  daffodil, 
form  new  bulbs  that 
separate  without  being 
scraped. 

There  are  some  other 
plants  which  have  under- 
ground parts  that  are 
corfimonly  called  bulbs 
but  which  are  not  bulbs 
at  all ;  for  example,  the 

gladiolus  and  the  caladium.  or  elephant's  ear.  Their  under- 
ground parts  are  bulblike  in  shape,  but  are  reallv  solid  flat- 
tened stems  with  eyes  like  the  underground  stem  of  the  Irish 
potato.  These  parts  are  called  conns.  Thev  mav  be  cut  into 
pieces  like  the  potato  and  each  part  will  grow. 

The  dahlia  makes  a  mass  of  roots  that  look  greatly  like 
sweet  potatoes,  but  there  are  no  eyes  on  them  as  there  are 
on  the  sweet  potato.    The  only  eyes  are  on  the  base  of  the 


Fig.  99.    A  Clematis 


112 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


stem  to  which  they  are  joined.  They  may  be  sprouted  Hke 
sweet  potatoes  and  then  soft  cuttings  made  of  the  green 
shoots,  after  which  they  may  be  rooted  in  the  greenhouse 
and  later  planted  in  pots. 

There  are  many  perennial  plants  that  will  bloom  the  first 
season  when  grown  from  the  seed,  though  such  seedlings 
are  seldom  so  good  as  the  plants  from  which  they  came. 
They  are  generally  used  to  originate  new  varieties.  Seeds 
of  the  dahlia,  for  instance,  can  be  sowed  in  a  box  in  a  warm 
room  in  earlv  March,  potted  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  large 


I'lG.  loo.   Outdoor-Grown  Chrysanthemums 

enough  to  handle,  and  finally  planted  in  the  garden  when 
the  weather  is  warm.  They  will  bloom  nearly  as  soon  as 
plants  grown  by  dividing  the  roots  or  from  cuttings. 

In  growing  annual  plants  from  seed,  there  is  little  difficulty 
if  the  grower  has  a  greenhouse  or  a  hotbed  with  a  glass  sash. 
Even  without  these  the  plants  may  be  grown  in  shallow  boxes 
in  a  warm  room.  The  best  boxes  are  about  four  inches  deep 
with  bottoms  made  of  slats  nailed  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart 
to  give  proper  drainage.  Some  moss  is  laid  over  the  bottom 
to  prevent  the  soil  from  sifting  through.  The  boxes  should 
then  be  filled  with  light,  rich  soil.  Fine  black  forest  mold, 
thoroughly  mixed  with  one  fourth   its  bulk  of  well-rotted 


HORTICULTURE 


113 


manure,  makes  the  best  soil  for  filling  the  seed-boxes.  If 
this  soil  be  placed  in  an  oven  and  heated  very  hot,  the 
heat  will  destroy  many  weeds  that  would  otherwise  give 
trouble.  After  the  soil  is  put  in  the  boxes  it  should  be 
well  packed  by  pressing  it  with  a  flat  wooden  block.  Sow 
the  seeds  in  straight  rows,  and  at  the  ends  of  the  rows  put 
little  wooden  labels 
with  the  names  of 
the  flowers  on  them. 
Seeds  sowed  in  the 
same  box  should  be 
of  the  same  general 
size  in  order  that  they 
may  be  properly  cov- 
ered, for  seeds  need 
to  be  covered  accord- 
ing to  their  size. 
After  sowing  the  seed, 
sift  the  fine  soil  over 
the  surface  of  the 
box.  The  best  soil 
for  covering  small 
seeds  is  made  by  rub- 
bing  dry   moss  and 

leaf-mold  through  a  sieve  together.  This  makes  a  light  cover 
that  will  not  bake  and  will  retain  moisture.  After  covering 
the  seeds,  press  the  soil  firm  and  smooth  with  a  wooden 
block.  Now  sprinkle  the  covering  soil  lightly  with  a  watering- 
pot  until  it  is  fairly  moistened.  Lay  some  panes  of  glass 
over  the  box  to  retain  the  moisture,  and  avoid  further  water- 
ing until  moisture  becomes  absolutely  necessary.  Too  much 
watering  makes  the  soil  too  compact  and  rots  the  seed. 


Fig.  ioi.  Thk  Carnation  (Eldokauu) 


114 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXNERS 


As  soon  as  the  seedlings  have  made  a  second  pair  of 
leaves,  take  them  up  with  the  point  of  a  knife  and  transplant 
them  into  other  boxes  filled  in  the  same  way.    They  should 

be  set  two  inches  apart  so  as  to 
give  them  room  to  grow  strong. 
They  may  be  transplanted  from 
the  boxes  to  the  flower-garden  by 
taking  an  old  knife-blade  and  cut- 
ting the  earth  into  squares,  and 
then  lifting  the  entire  square  with 
the  plant  and  setting  it  where  it 
is  wanted. 

There  are  many  flower-seeds 
which  are  so  small  that  they  must 
not  be  covered  at  all.  In  this  class 
we  find  begonias,  petunias,  and 
Chinese  primroses.  To  sow  these 
prepare  boxes  as  for  the  other 
-eeds,  and  press  the  earth  smooth. 
Then  scatter  some  fine,  dry-  moss 
ihinly  over  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
Sprinkle  this  with  water  until  it  is 
/i  B^^^^^l  well  moistened,  and  at  once  scatter 
W^  |BH^^^HI    the  seeds  thinly  over  the  surface 

[  i  M  11  1 ^nd  cover  the  boxes  with  panes  of 

glass  until  the  seeds  germinate. 
Transplant  as  soon  as  the  young 
plants  can  be  lifted  out  separately  on  the  blade  of  a  penknife. 
Many  kinds  of  flower-seeds  may  be  sowed  directly  in  the  open 
ground  where  they  are  to  remain.  The  sweet  pea  is  one  of 
the  most  popular  flowers  grown  in  this  way.  The  seeds  should 
be  sowed  rather  thickly  in  rows  and  covered  fully  four  inches 


Fig.  I02.    The  Poet's 
Narcissus 


HORTICULTURE 


"S 


Fig. 


A  Cyclamen 


deep.    The  sowing  should  be  varied  in  time  according  to  the 

climate.    From  North  Carolina  southward,  sweet  peas  may 

be  sowed  in  the 
fall  or  in  Januar)% 
as  they  are  ver}' 
hardy  and  should 
be  forced  to  bloom 
before  the  weather 
becomes  hot.  Late 
spring  sowing  will 
not  give  fine  flow- 
ers in  the  South. 
From  North  Caro- 
lina northward  the 

seeds  should  be  sowed  just  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 

ground  can  be  easily  worked.   When  the  plants  appear,  stakes 

should    be    set    along 

the   rows  and   a  strip 

of     woven-wire    fence 

stretched  for  the  plants 

to  climb  on.  Moming- 

glor\-    seeds    are    also 

sowed  where  they  are 

to    grow.     The    seeds 

of  the  moonflower  are 

large  and  hard  and  will 

fail  to  grow  unless  they 

are   slightly   cut.     To 

start  their  growth  make 

a  slight  cut  just  through 

the  hard  outer  coat  of 

the  seed  so  as  to  expose  i-ig.  104.  a  MoutKN  Swlli  ptA 


ii6 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


the  white  inside.  In  this  way  they  will  grow  very  readily. 
The  seeds  of  the  canna,  or  Indian-shot  plant,  are  treated  in 
a  similar  way  to  start  them  growing. 

The  canna  makes  large  fleshy  roots  which  in  the  North 
are  taken  up,  covered  with  damp  moss,  and  stored  under 
the  benches  of  the  greenhouse  or  in  a  cellar.    If  allowed  to 

get  too  dry,  they  will 
wither.  From  central 
North  Carolina  south 
it  is  best  to  cover  them 
up  thickly  with  dead 
leaves  and  let  them 
stay  in  the  ground 
where  they  grew.  In 
the  early  spring  take 
them  up  and  divide 
for  replanting. 

Perennial  plants, 
such  as  our  flowering 
shrubs,  are  grown 
from  cuttings  of  the 
ripe  wood  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen  in 
autumn.  From  North 
Fig.  105.  Dahlias  Carolina     southward 

these  cuttings  should  be  set  in  rows  in  the  fall.  Cuttings  ten 
inches  long  are  set  so  that  the  tops  are  just  even  with  the 
ground.  A  light  cover  of  pine  leaves  will  prevent  damage 
from  frost.  Farther  north  the  cuttings  should  be  tied  in 
bundles  and  well  buried  in  the  ground  with  earth  heaped 
over  them.  In  the  spring  set  them  in  rows  for  rooting.  In 
the  South  all  the  hardy  hybrid  perpetual  roses  can  be  grown 


HORTICULTURE 


117 


in  this  way,  and  in  any  section  the  cuttings  of  most  of  the 
spring-flowering  shrubs  will  grow  in  the  same  manner.  The 
Japanese  quince,  which  makes  such  a  show  of  its  scarlet 
flowers  in  early  spring,  can  be  best  grown  from  three-inch 
cuttings  made  of  the  roots  and  planted  in  rows  in  the  fall. 
Manv  of  our  ornamental  evergreen  trees,  such  as  the  arbor 
vitae.  can  be  grown  in  the  spring  from  seeds  sowed  in  a  frame. 


d- 

A        .^ 

a»i^_. 

H^r- 

A-^^W— 

^.,I^^MHH||| 

f^^^^l^% 

)^^^A 

^E 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^BIH^n^^DBB^AHE^^^D^Bii 

Fli..    100.     FOUR-O'CLOCKS   SET    I.N"    A   GOOU    I'LACK 

Cotton  cloth  should  be  stretched  over  the  trees  while  they 
are  young,  to  prevent  the  sun  from  scorching  them.  When 
a  year  old  they  may  be  set  in  nurser\'  rows  to  develop  until 
they  are  large  enough  to  plant.  Arbor  vita?  may  also  be  grown 
from  cuttings  made  by  setting  young  tips  in  boxes  of  sand 
in  the  fall  and  keeping  them  warm  and  moist  through  the 
winter.    Most  of  them  will  be  rooted  by  spring. 

The  kinds  of  flowers  that  you  can  grow  are  almost  count- 
less.   You  can  hardly  make  a  mistake  in  selecting,  as  all  are 


ii8 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


interesting.  Start  this  year  with  a  few  and  gradually  increase 
the  number  under  your  care  year  by  year,  and  aim  always  to 
make  your  plants  the  choicest  of  their  kind. 

Of  annuals  there  are  over  four  hundred  kinds  cultivated. 
You  may  select  from  the  following  list :  phlox,  petunias, 
China  asters,  California  poppies,  sweet  peas,  pinks,  double 


Fig.  107.   A  Window  Box 

and  single  sunflowers,  hibiscus,  candytuft,  balsams,  morning- 
glories,  stocks,  nasturtiums,  verbenas,  mignonette. 

Of  perennials  select  bleeding-hearts,  pinks,  bluebells,  holly- 
hocks, perennial  phlox,  perennial  hibiscus,  wild  asters,  and 
goldenrods.  From  bulbs  choose  crocus,  tulip,  daffodil,  nar- 
cissus, lily  of  the  valley,  and  lily. 

Some  climbers  are  cobaea,  honeysuckle,  Virginia  creeper, 
English  ivy,  Boston  i\y,  cypress  vine,  hyacinth  bean,  climbing 
nasturtiums,  and  roses. 


HORTICULTURE 


119 


To  make  your  plants  do  best,  cultivate  them  carefully. 
Allow  no  weeds  to  grow  among  them  and  do  not  let  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  dry  into  a  hard  crust.  Beware,  however,  of 
stirring  the  soil  too  deep.  Loosening  the  soil  about  the  roots 
interrupts  the  feeding  of  the  plant  and  does  harm.  Climbing 
plants  may  be  trained  to  advantage  on  low  woven-wire  fences. 
These  are  especially  serviceable  for  sweet  peas  and  climbing 
nasturtiums.  Do  not  let  the 
plants  go  to  seed,  since 
seeding  is  a  heavy  drain  on 
nourishment.  Moreover,  the 
plant  has  served  its  end 
when  it  seeds  and  is  ready 
then  to  stop  blossoming. 
You  should  therefore  pick 
off  the  old  flowers  to  pre- 
vent their  developing  seeds. 
This  will  cause  many  plants 
which  would  otherwise  soon 
stop  blossoming  to  continue 
bearing  flowers  for  a  longer 
period. 

Window-Gardening.  Growing  plants  indoors  in  the  win- 
dow possesses  many  of  the  attractions  of  outdoor  flower- 
gardening,  and  is  a  means  of  beautifying  the  room  at  very 
small  expense.  Especially  do  window-gardens  give  delight 
during  the  barren  winter  time.  They  are  a  source  of  culture 
and  pleasure  to  thousands  who  cannot  afford  extended  and 
expensive  ornamentation. 

The  window-garden  may  var)^  in  size  from  an  eggshell 
holding  a  minute  plant  to  boxes  filling  all  the  available  space 
about  the  window.    The  soil  may  be  in  pots  for  individual 


Fig.  ioS.    A  Window-Garde.n 


I20 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


Fig.  109.   Ax  Inside  Window  Box  in  its 
Full  Glory 


plants  or  groups  of   plants  or  in  boxes   for  collections  of 
plants.    You  may  raise  your  flowers  inside  of  the  window  on 

shelves  or  stands, 
or  you  may  have  a 
set  of  shelves  built 
outside  of  the  win- 
dow and  inclosed 
in  glazed  sashes. 
The  illustration  on 
page  1 19  gives  an 
idea  of  such  an 
external  window- 
garden. 

The  soil  must 
be  rich  and  loose. 
The  best  contains  some  undecayed  organic  matter  such  as 
leaf-mold  or  partly  decayed  sods  and  some  sand.  Raise  your 
plants  from  bulbs,  cuttings,  or  seed,  just  as  in  outdoor  gardens. 
Some  plants  do  bet- 
ter in  cool  rooms, 
others  in  a  warmer 
temperature. 

If  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  3  5  '^ 
to  70°,  averaging 
about  55°,  azaleas, 
daisies,  carnations, 
cand\tuft,  alyssum, 
dusty  miller,  chrv^s- 
anthemums,  cine- 
rarias, camellias,  daphnes,  geraniums,  petunias,  \-iolets,  prim- 
roses, and  verbenas  make  especially  good  growths. 


Fig.  11c. 


WlNLiOW    BLOOil 


A    LL.v. 


HORTICULTURE 


121 


If  the  temperature  is  from  50°  to  90",  averaging  70°,  trv' 
abutilon,  begonia,  bouvardia,  caladium,  canna,  Cape  jasmine, 
coleus,  fuchsia,  gloxinia,  heUotrope,  lantana,  lobelia,  roses, 
and  smilax. 

If  your  box  or  window  is  shaded  a  good  part  of  the  time, 
raise  begonias,  camellias,  ferns,  and  Asparagus  Sprengeri. 


Fig.  III.    Fekns  for  13uth  Lndooks  and  Outdoors 

When  the  soil  is  dr)-,  water  it ;  then  apply  no  more  water 
until  it  again  becomes  dr\'.  Beware  of  too  much  water.  The 
plants  should  be  washed  occasionally  with  soapsuds  and 
then  rinsed.  If  red  spiders  are  present,  sponge  them  off 
with  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  comfortably  by  the  hand. 
Newspapers  afford  a  good  means  of  keeping  off  the  cold. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 

SECTION  XXVII.    THE  CAUSE  AND  NATURE  OF 
PLANT  DISEASE 

Plants  have  diseases  just  as  animals  do ;  not  the  same 
diseases,  to  be  sure,  but  just  as  serious  for  the  plant.  Some 
of  them  are  so  dangerous  that  they  kill  the  plant ;  others 
partly  or  wholly  destroy  its  usefulness  or  its  beauty.  Some 
diseases  are  found  oftenest  on  very  young  plants,  others  prey 
on  the  middle-aged  tree,  while  still  others  attack  merely  the 
fruit.  Whenever  a  farmer  or  fruit-grower  has  disease  on  his 
plants,  he  is  sure  to  lose  much  profit. 

You  have  all  seen  rotten  fruit.  This  is  diseased  fruit. 
Fruit  rot  is  a  plant  disease.  It  costs  farmers  millions  of 
dollars  annually.  A  fruit-grower  recently  lost  sixty  carloads 
of  peaches  in  a  single  year  through  rot  which  could  have 
been  largeh'  prevented  if  he  had  known  how. 

Manv  of  the  yellowish  or  discolored  spots  on  leaves  are 
the  result  of  disease,  as  is  also  the  smut  of  wheat,  corn,  and 
oats,  the  blight  of  the  pear,  and  the  wilt  of  cotton.  Many  of 
these  diseases  are  contagious,  or,  as  we  often  hear  said  of 
measles,  "  catching."  This  is  true,  among  others,  of  the 
apple  and  peach  rots.  A  healthy  apple  can  catch  this  dis- 
ease from  a  sick  apple.  You  often  see  evidence  of  this  in 
the  apple  bin.  So,  too,  many  of  the  diseases  found  in  the 
field  or  garden  are  contagious. 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 


123 


Sometimes  when  the  skin  of  a  rotten  apple  has  been 
broken  you  will  find  in  the  broken  place  a  blue  mold.  It  was 
this  that  caused  the  apple  to  decay.  This  mold  is  a  living 
plant ;  very  small,  certainly,  but  nevertheless  a  plant.  Let  us 
learn  a  little  about  molds,  in  order  that  we  may  better  under- 
stand our  apple  and  potato  rots,  as  well  as  other  plant  diseases. 

If  you  cut  a  lemon  and  let  it  stand  for  a  day  or  tw^o,  there 
will  probably  appear  a  blue  mold  like  that  you  have  seen 
on  the  surface  of  canned 
fruit.  Bread  also  some- 
times has  this  blue  mold  ; 
at  other  times  bread  has  a 
black  mold,  and  yet  again 
a  pink  or  a  yellow  mold. 

These  and 
all  other  molds 
are  tiny  living 
plants.  Instead 
of  seeds  they 
produce  many 
vers- small  bod- 
ies that  serve 
the  purpose  of 

seeds  and   reproduce  the  mold.     These  are   called  spores. 
Fig.   112  shows  how  they  are  borne  on  the  parent  plant. 

It  is  also  of  great  importance  to  decide  whether  by  keep- 
ing the  spores  away  we  may  prevent  mold.  Possibly  this 
experiment  will  help  us.  Moisten  a  piece  of  bread,  then  dip 
a  match  or  a  pin  into  the  blue  mold  on  a  lemon,  and  draw 
the  match  across  the  moist  bread.  Vou  will  thus  plant  the 
spores  in  a  row,  though  they  are  so  small  that  perhaps  you 
may  not  see  any  of  them.    Place  the  bread  in  a  damp  place 


Fig.  112.    Taxgleo  Threads  of  Blue  Mold 
The  single  stalk  on  the  left  shows  how  spores  are  borne 


124 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Fig.  ii^.   Magnified  Rose  Mildew 


for  a  few"  da\s  and  watch  it.    Does  the  mold  grow  where  \ou 
planted  it  ?  Does  it  grow  elsewhere  ?  This  experiment  should 

prove  to  you  that  molds 
\        -    v^-v,^?  ,  -y  are  li\"ing  things  and  can 

be  planted.  If  you  find 
spots  elsewhere,  you  must 
bear  in  mind  that  these 
spores  are  ven*  small  and 
light  and  that  some  of 
them  were  probably  blown 
about  when  you  made 
your  sowing.  When  you 
touch  the  moldy  portion 
of  a  dr\-  lemon,  you  see 
a  cloud  of  dust  rise.  This  dust  is  made  of  miUions  of  sp)ores. 
If  you  plant  many  other  kinds  of  mold  you  will  find  that 
the  molds  come  true  to  the  kind  that  is  planted  ;  that  like 
produces  like  even 
among  molds. 

You  can  prove, 
also,  that  the  mold 
is  caused  only  by 
other  mold.  To  do 
this,  put  some  wet 
bread  in  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  and 
plug  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  with  cot- 
ton. Kill  all  the 
spores  that  may  be  in  this  bottle  by  steaming  it  an  hour  in  a 
cooking-steamer.  This  bread  will  not  mold  until  you  allow 
live  mold  from  the  outside  to  enter.    If.  however,  at  anv  time 


Fig.  114.   A  Mildewed  Rose 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 


125 


you  open  the  bottle  and  allow  spores  to  enter,  or  if  you  plant 
spores  therein,  and  if  there  be  moisture  enough,  mold  will 
immediately  set  in. 

The  little  plants  which  make  up  these  molds  are  called 
fungi.    Some  fungi,  such  as  the  toadstools,  puffballs,  and 


Fig.  115.    A  Highly  Magnified  Section  of  Diseased  Pear  Leaf 
Showing  how  spores  are  borne 

dexil's  snuff-box.  are  quite  large  ;  others,  namely  the  molds,  are 
ver)'  small ;  and  others  are  even  smaller  than  the  molds.  Fungi 
never  have  the  green  color  of  ordinar\-  plants,  always  repro- 
duce by  spores,  and  feed  on  li\ing  matter  or  matter  that  was 
once  alive.  Puffballs,  for  example,  are  found  on  rotting  wood 
or  dead  twigs  or  roots.     Some  fungi  grow  on  li\ing  plants, 


126 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


and  these  produce  plant  disease  by  taking  their  nourishment 
from  the  plant  on  which  they  grow  ;  the  latter  plant  is  called 
the  host. 

The  same  blue  mold  that  grows  on  bread  often  attacks 
apples  that  have  been  slightly  bruised  ;  it  cannot  pierce 
healthy  apple  skin.  You  can  plant  the  mold  in  the  bruised 
apple  just  as  you  did  on  bread  and  watch  its  rapid  spread 
through  the  apple.  You  learn  from  this  the  need  of  prevent- 
ing bruised  or  decayed  apples  from  coming  in  contact  with 

health}-  fruit. 
f\  1— H         Just  as  the  fun- 

gus studied  above 
lives  in  the  apple 
or  bread,  so  other 
^"arieties  Hac  on 
leaves,  bark,  etc. 
Fig.  1 1 3  represents 
the  surface  of  a 
mildewed  rose  leaf 
greatly  magnified. 
This  mildew  is  a 
fungus.  You  can 
see  its  creeping  stems,  its  upright  stalk,  and  numerous  spores 
readv  to  fall  off  and  spread  the  disease  A^th  the  first  breath 
of  wind.  You  must  remember  that  this  figure  is  greatly 
magnified,  and  that  the  whole  portion  shown  in  the  figure  is 
only  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch  across.  Fig.  114  shows  the 
general  appearance  of  a  twig  affected  by  this  disease. 

Mildew  on  the  rose  or  on  any  other  plant  may  be  killed 
by  spraying  the  leaves  with  a  solution  of  liver  of  sulphur ; 
to  make  this  solution,  use  one  ounce  of  the  liver  of  sulphur 
to  tAvo  gallons  of  water. 


Fig.  116.    Spores  of  the  Pear  Scab 
The  spores  are  borne  on  stalks 


THE  DISEL\SES  OF  PLANTS  12/ 

The  fungus  that  causes  the  pear-leaf  spots  has  its  spores 
in  little  pits  (Fig.  115).  The  spores  of  some  fungi  also  grow 
on  stalks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1 16.  This  figure  represents  an  en- 
larged view  of  the  pear  scab,  which  causes  so  much  destruction. 

You  see,  then,  that  fungi  are  li\ing  plants  that  grow  at  the 
expense  of  other  plants  and  cause  disease.  Now  if  you  can 
cover  the  leaf  with  a  poison  that  will  kill  the  spore  when  it 
comes,  you  can  prevent  the  disease.  One  such  poison  is  the 
Bordeaux  {bor-do')  mixture,  which  has  proved  of  great  value 
to  farmers. 

Since  the  fungus  in  most  cases  lives  within  the  leaves,  the 
poison  on  the  outside  does  no  good  after  the  fungus  is  estab- 
lished. The  treatment  can  be  used  only  to  frci'cnt  attack, 
not  to  cure,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  mildews  that  live 
on  the  outside  of  the  leaf,  as  does  the  rose  mildew. 

EXERCISE 

Why  do  things  mold  more  readily  in  damp  places?  Do  you  now 
understand  why  fruit  is  heated  before  it  is  canned  ?  Tr^-  to  grow  several 
kinds  of  mold.    Do  you  know  any  fungi  which  may  be  eaten .'' 

Transfer  disease  from  a  rotten  apple  to  a  healthy  one  and  note  the 
rapidity  of  decay.  How  many  really  healthy  leaves  can  you  find  on  a 
strawberry  plant  ?  Do  you  find  any  sp>ots  with  reddish  borders  and  white 
centers?  Do.  you  know  that  this  is  a  serious  disease  of  the  strawberry? 
What  damage  does  fruit  mold  do  to  peaches,  plums,  or  strawberries? 

Write  to  your  experiment  station  for  bulletins  on  plant  diseases  and 
methods  for  making  and  using  spraying  mixtures. 

SECTIOX  XXVni.    YEAST  AND  BACTERIA 

Can  you  imagine  a  plant  so  small  that  it  would  take  one  hun- 
dred plants  lying  side  by  side  to  equal  the  thickness  of  a  sheet  of 
writing-paper  }  There  are  plants  that  are  so  small.  Moreover, 
these  same  plants  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  man.  Some 
of  them  do  him  great  injur)-,  while  others  aid  him  ven-  much. 


128  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

You  will  see  their  importance  when  you  are  told  that 
certain  of  them  in  their  habits  of  life  cause  great  change  in 
the  substances  in  which  they  live.  For  example,  when  living 
in  a  sugar)^  substance  they  change  the  sugar  into  a  gas  and  an 
alcohol.  Do  you  remember  the  bright  bubbles  of  gas  you 
have  seen  rising  in  sweet  cider  or  in  \\-ine  as  it  soured  ? 
These  bubbles  are  caused  by  one  of  these  small  plants  —  the 
yeast  plant.  As  the  yeast  plant  grows  in  the  sweet  fruit  juice, 
alcohol  is  made  and  a  gas  is  given  off  at  the  same  time,  and 

this  gas  makes  the  bubbles. 
Later,  other  kinds  of  plants 
equally  small  will  grow  and 
change  the  alcohol  into  an 
acid  which  you  will  recognize 
as  vinegar  by  its  sour  taste 
and  peculiar  odor.  Thus  vine- 
gar is  made  bv  the  action  of 
FIG.  1,7.   Yeast  Plants  ^^.^   different    kinds    of   little 

A,  a  single  plant:   B,  group  of  two  bud-    ,.    .  ,       ^       .        ^,  ■  ■, 

ding  cells  :C,  group  of  several  cells         ll^^g     plants     in     the     Cider. 

That  these  are  living  beings 
you  can  prove  by  heating  the  cider  and  keeping  it  tightly  sealed 
so  that  nothing  can  enter  it.  You  will  find  that  because  the 
li\-ing  germs  have  been  killed  by  the  heat,  the  cider  will  not 
ferment  or  sour  as  it  did  before.  The  germs  could  of  course 
be  killed  by  poisons,  but  then  the  cider  would  be  unfit  for  use. 
It  is  this  same  little  yeast  plant  that  causes  bread  to  rise. 

When  you  see  any  decaying  matter  you  may  know  that 
in  it  minute  plants  much  like  the  yeast  plant  are  at  work. 
Since  decay  is  due  to  them,  we  take  advantage  of  the  fact 
that  they  cannot  grow  in  strong  brine  or  smoke  ;  and  we 
prepare  meat  for  keeping  by  salting  it  or  by  smoking  it  or 
by  both  of  these  methods. 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS  129 

You  see  that  some  of  the  yeast  plants  and  bactfria,  as 
manv  of  these  forms  are  called,  are  ver}-  friendly  to  us.  while 
others  do  us  great  harm. 

Some  bacteria  grow  within  the  bodies  of  men  and  other 
animals  or  in  plants.  When  they  do  so  they  may  produce 
disease.  Typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  consumption,  and  many 
other  serious  diseases  are  caused  by  bacteria.  Fig.  118,  e, 
shows  the  bacterium  that  causes  typhoid  fever.  In  the  pic- 
ture, of  course,  it  is  ver\'  greatly  magnified.  In  reality  these 
bacteria  are  so  small  that  about  twenty-five  thousand  of  them 
side  by  side  would  extend 
only    one    inch.      These  ^s' 

small  beings  produce  their  ,  ^ 

great  effects  bv  ver\-  rapid         ^         „    ^ 

*  '  '         .  Fig.  iiS.    Forms  of  Bacteria 

multiplication  and  by  giv- 

.  a.  grippe  :  b,  bubonic  plague  :  c,  diphtheria: 

ing  off  powerful  poisons.  J^  tuberculosis :  e,  tj-phoid  fever 

Bacteria  are  so  small 
that  they  are  readily  borne  on  the  dust  particles  of  the  air 
and  are  often  taken  into  the  body  through  the  breath  and 
also  through  water  or  milk.  You  can  therefore  see  how  care- 
ful vou  should  be  to  prevent  germs  from  getting  into  the  air 
or  into  water  or  milk  when  there  is  disease  about  your  home. 
You  should  heed  carefully  all  instructions  of  your  physician 
on  this  point,  so  that  you  may  not  spread  disease. 

SECTION  XXIX.    PREVENTION  OF  PLANT  DISEASE 

In  the  last  two  sections  you  have  learned  something  of  the 
nature  of  those  fungi  and  bacteria  that  cause  disease  in  animals 
and  plants.  Now  let  us  see  how  we  can  use  this  knowledge 
to  lessen  the  diseases  of  our  crops.  Farmers  lose  through 
plant  diseases  much  that  could  be  saved  by  proper  precaution. 


I30  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

First,  you  must  remember  that  every  diseased  fruit,  twig, 
or  leaf  bears  millions  of  spores.  These  must  be  destroyed 
by  burning.  They  must  not  be  allowed  to  lie  about  and 
spread  the  disease  in  the  spring.  See  that  decayed  fruit  in 
the  bin  or  on  the  trees  is  destroyed  in  the  same  manner. 
Never  throw  decayed  fruit  into  the  garden  or  orchard,  as  it 
may  cause  disease  the  following  year. 

Second,  you  can  often  kill  spores  on  seeds  before  they 
are  planted  and  thus  prevent  the  development  of  the  fungus 
(see  pp.  134-137). 

Third,  often  the  foliage  of  the  plant  can  be  sprayed  with 
a  poison  that  will  prevent  the  germination  of  the  spores  (see 
pp.  138-140). 

Fourth,  some  varieties  of  plants  resist  disease  much  more 
stoutly  than  others.  We  may  often  select  the  resistant  form 
to  great  advantage  (see  Fig.  119). 

Fifth,  after  big  limbs  are  pruned  off,  decay  often  sets  in 
at  the  wound.  This  decay  may  be  prevented  by  coating  the 
cut  surface  with  paint,  tar,  or  some  other  substance  that  will 
not  allow  spores  to  enter  the  wound  or  to  germinate  there. 

Sixth,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  spore  or  fungus 
remains  in  the  soil.  This  is  true  in  the  cotton  wilt,  and  the 
remedy  is  so  to  rotate  crops  that  the  diseased  land  is  not  used 
again  for  this  crop  until  the  spores  or  fungi  have  died. 

SECTION  XXX.    SOME  SPECIAL  PLANT  DISEASES 

Fire-Blight  of  the  Pear  and  Apple.  You  have  perhaps 
heard  your  father  speak  of  the  "  fire-blight "  of  pear  and 
apple  trees.  This  is  one  of  the  most  injurious  and  most 
widely  known  of  fruit  diseases.  Do  you  want  to  know  the 
cause  of  this  disease  and  how  to  prevent  it  ? 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS  1 31 

First,  how  will  you  recognize  this  disease  ?  If  the  diseased 
bough  at  which  you  are  looking  has  true  fire-blight,  \ou  will 
see  a  blackened  twig  with  withered,  blackened  leaves.  Dur- 
ing winter  the  leaves  do  not  fall  from  blighted  twigs  as  they 
do  from  healthy  ones.  The  leaves  wither  because  of  the  dis- 
eased twig,  not  because  they  are  themselves  diseased.  Only 
rarely  does  the  blight  really  enter  the  leaf.  Sometimes  a 
sharp  line  separates  the  blighted  from  the  healthy  part  of 
the  twig. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  bacteria,  of  which  you  have  read 
in  another  section.  The  fire-blight  bacteria  grow  in  the  juicy 
part  of  the  stem,  between  the  wood  and  the  bark.  This 
tender,  fresh  layer  (as  explained  on  page  79)  is  called  the 
ca)nbiitm,  and  is  the  part  that  breaks  awa\-  and  allows  }0u 
to  slip  the  bark  off  when  }ou  make  your  bark  whistle  in  the 
spring.  The  growth  of  new  wood  takes  place  in  the  cambium, 
and  this  part  of  the  twig  is  therefore  full  of  nourishment. 
If  this  nourishment  is  stolen  the  plant  of  course  soon  suffers. 

The  bacteria  causing  fire-blight  are  readily  carried  from 
flower  to  flower  and  from  twig  to  twig  by  insects  ;  therefore 
to  keep  these  and  other  bacteria  away  from  your  trees  you 
must  see  to  it  that  all  the  trees  in  the  neighborhood  of  your 
orchard  are  kept  free  from  mischievous  enemies.  If  harm- 
ful bacteria  exist  in  near-by  trees,  insects  will  caxxy  them  to 
\"0ur  orchard.  You  must  therefore  watch  all  the  relatives  of 
the  pear ;  namely,  the  apple,  hawthorn,  crab,  quince,  and 
mountain  ash,  for  any  of  these  trees  may  harbor  the  germs. 

When  any  tree  shows  blight,  ever)'  diseased  twig  on  it 
must  be  cut  off  and  burned  in  order  to  kill  the  germs,  and 
you  must  cut  low  enough  on  the  t\vig  to  get  all  the  bacteria. 
It  is  best  to  cut  a  foot  below  the  blackened  portion.  If  by 
chance  vour  knife  should  cut  into  wood  containinir  the  living; 


^3- 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 


133 


germs,  and  then  you  should  cut  into  healthy  wood  with  the 
same  knife,  you  yourself  would  spread  the  disease.  It  is 
therefore  best  after  each  cutting  to  dip  your  knife  into  a  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid.  This  will  kill  all  bacteria  clinging  to 
the  knife-blade.  The  surest  time  to  do  complete  trimming  is 
after  the  leaves  fall  in  the  autumn,  as  diseased  twigs  are  most 
easily  recognized  at  that  time, 
but  the  orchard  should  be  care- 
fully watched  in  the  spring  also. 
If  a  large  limb  shows  the  blight, 
it  is  perhaps  best  to  cut  the  tree 
entirely  down.  There  is  little 
hope  for  such  a  tree. 

A  large  pear-grower  once 
said  that  no  man  with  a  sharp 
knife  need  fear  the  fire-blight. 
Yet  our  country  loses  greatly 
by  this  disease  each  year. 

It  may  be  added  that  winter  pruning  tends  to  make  the 
tree  form  much  new  wood  and  thus  favors  the  disease.  Rich 
soil  and  fertilizers  make  it  much  easier  in  a  similar  way  for 
the  tree  to  become  a  prey  to  blight. 


Fig.  120.  Fire-Blight  Bacteria 
Magnified 


EXERCISE 

Ask  your  teacher  to  show  you  a  case  of  fire-blight  on  a  pear  or  apple 
tree.  Can  you  distinguish  between  healthy  and  diseased  wood  ?  Cut  the 
twig  open  lengthwise  and  see  how  deep  into  the  wood  and  how  far  down 
the  stem  the  disease  extends.  Can  you  tell  surely  from  the  outside  how 
far  the  twig  is  diseased  ?  Can  you  find  any  twig  that  does  not  show  a 
distinct  line  of  separation  between  diseased  and  healthy  wood.''  If  so, 
the  bacteria  are  still  living  in  the  cambium.  Cut  out  a  small  bit  of  the 
diseased  portion  and  insert  it  under  the  bark  of  a  healthy,  juicy  twig 
within  a  few  inches  of  its  tip  and  watch  it  from  day  to  day.    Does  the 


134 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


tree  catch  the  disease?  This  experiment  may  prove  to  you  how  easily 
the  disease  spreads.  If  you  should  see  any  drops  like  dew  hanging  from 
diseased  twigs,  touch  a  little  of  this  moisture  to  a  healthy  flower  and 
watch  for  results. 

Cut  and  bum  aU  diseased  tnigs  that  you  can  find.  Estimate  the 
damage  done  by  fire-blight. 

Farmers'  bulletins  on  orchard  enemies  are  published  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C..  and  can  be  had  by  writing  for 
them.    They  ■will  help  your  father  much  in  treating  fire-blight. 

Oat  Smuts.  Let  us  go  out  into  a  near-by  oat  field  and 
look  for  all  the  blackened  heads  of  grain  that  we  can  find. 
How  many  are  there  ?  To  count  accurately 
let  us  select  an  area  one  foot  square.  \\q 
must  look  carefully,  for  many  of  these 
blackened  heads  are  so  low  that  we  shall 
not  see  them  at  the  first  glance.  You  will 
be  surprised  to  find  as  many  as  thirt}-  or 
fort}-  heads  in  ever\-  hundred  so  blackened. 
These  blackened  heads  are  due  to  a  plant 
disease  called  svint. 

When  threshing-time  comes  you  will 
notice  a  great  quantit)'  of  black  dust  com- 
ing from  the  grain  as  it  passes  through  the 
machine.  The  air  is  full  of  it.  This  black 
dust  consists  of  the  spores  of  a  tiny  fun- 
The  glumes  at  a  more  gous  plant.  The  fungous  smut  plant  grows 
nearly  destroyed  than  u|x)n  the  oat  plant,  ripcns  its  sporcs  in 

the  glumes  at  3  ■,-,■,  i     ■  ■,  ii  ii 

the  head,  and  is  ready  to  be  thoroughly 
scattered  among  the  grains  of  the  oats  as  they  come  from 
the  threshing-machine. 

These  spores  cling  to  the  grain  and  at  the  next  planting 
are  ready  to  attack  the  sprouting  plantlet.  A  curious  thing 
about  the  smut  is  that  it  can  gain  a  foothold  only  on  ver)- 


Fig.    121.    Lx>osE 
Smut  of  Oats 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 


135 


young  oat  plants  ;  that  is,  on  plants  about  an  inch  long  or 
of  the  age  shown  in  Fig.  121. 

When  grain  covered  with  smut  spores  is  planted,  the 
spores  develop  with  the  sprouting  seeds  and  are  ready  to 
attack  the  young  plant  as  it 
breaks  through  the  seed-coat. 
You  see,  then,  how  important 
it  is  to  have  seed  grain  free  from 
smut.  A  substance  has  been 
found  that  will,  without  injur- 
ing the  seeds,  kill  all  the  smut 
spores  clinging  to  the  grain. 
This  substance  is  called  for- 
mal i)i.  Enough  seed  to  plant 
a  whole  acre  can  be  treated 
with  formalin  at  a  cost  of  onl\- 
a  few  cents.  Such  treatment 
insures  a  full  crop  and  clean 
seed  for  future  planting.  Try  it 
if  you  have  any  smut. 

Fig.  122  illustrates  what  mav 


be  gained  by  using  seeds  treated 


Fig.  122.  A  Crop  from  Oats 

TREATED    WITH    FORMALIN 


to  prevent  smut.  The  annual 
loss  to  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  from  smut  on  oats 
amounts  to  several  millions  of  dollars.  All  that  is  needed  to 
prevent  this  loss  is  a  little  care  in  the  treatment  of  seed 
and  a  proper  rotation  of  crops. 


EXERCISE 


Count  the  smutted  heads  on  a  patch  three  feet  square  and  estimate 
the  percentage  of  smut  in  all  the  wheat  and  oat  fields  near  your  home. 
On  which  is  it  most  abundant.'    Do  you  know  of  any  fields  that  have 


136  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

been  treated  for  smut?  If  so,  look  for  smut  in  these  fields.  Ask  how 
they  were  treated.  Do  you  know  of  any  one  who  uses  bluestone  for 
wheat  smut  ?    Can  oats  be  treated  with  bluestone  ? 

At  planting  time  get  an  ounce  of  formalin  at  your  drug  store  or  from 
the  state  experiment  station.  Mix  this  with  three  gallons  of  water. 
This  amount  will  treat  three  bushels  of  seeds.  Spread  the  seeds  thinly 
on  the  barn  floor  and  sprinkle  them  with  the  mixture,  being  careful 
that  all  the  seeds  are  thoroughly  moistened.  Cover  closely  with  blankets 
for  a  few  hours  and  plant  very  soon  after  treatment.  Try  this  and  esti- 
mate the  per  cent  of  smut  at  next  harvest-time.  Write  to  your  experi- 
ment station  for  a  bulletin  on  smut  treatment. 

Potato  Scab.  The  scab  of  the  white,  or  Irish,  potato  is 
one  of  the  commonest  and  at  the  same  time  most  easily  pre- 
vented of  plant  diseases.    Yet  this  disease  diminishes  the 


Fig.  123.  A  Scabby  Seed      Fig.  134.  A  Healthy  Seed 
Potato  Potato 

profits  of  the  potato-grower  very  materially.  Fig.  1 2  3  shows 
a  very  scabby  potato,  while  Fig.  124  represents  a  healthy  one. 
This  scab  is  caused  by  a  fungous  growth  on  the  surface 
of  the  potato.  Of  course  it  lessens  the  selling-price  of  the 
potatoes.  If  seed  potatoes  be  treated  to  a  bath  of  formalin 
just  before  they  are  planted,  the  formalin  will  kill  the  fungi 
on  the  potatoes  and  greatly  diminish  the  amount  of  scab  at 
the  next  harvest.  Therefore  before  they  are  planted,  seed 
potatoes  should  be  soaked  in  a  weak  solution  of  formalin 
for  about  two  hours.  One-half  pint  of  formalin  to  fifteen 
gallons  of  water  makes  a  proper  solution. 


Fig.  125 

From  a  scabby  potato,  like  the  one  in 
Fig.  123,  this  yield  was  obtained 


Fig.  126 

From  a  healthy  potato,  like  the  one  in 
Fig.  124,  this  peld  was  obtained 


Fig.  127.    Effect  of  Spr.a.yixg 
Sprayed  potatoes  on  left ;  unsprayed  on  right 


137 


138 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


One  pint  of  formalin,  or  enough  for  thirty  gallons  of  water, 
will  cost  but  thirty-five  cents.  Since  this  solution  can  be  used 
repeated!}",  it  will  do  for  many  bushels  of  seed  potatoes. 

Late  Potato  Blight.  The  blight  is  another  serious  disease 
of  the  potato.  This  is  quite  a  different  disease  from  the  scab 
and  so  requires  different  treatment.  The  blight  is  caused  by 
another  fungus,  which  attacks  the  foliage  of  the  potato  plant. 
When  the  blight  seriously  attacks  a  crop,  it  generally  destroys 


Fig.  128.    Yield  from  Two  Fields  of  the  Same  Size 
The  one  at  the  top  was  sprayed  :  the  one  at  the  bottom  was  unsprayed 

the  crop  completely.  In  the  year  1845  a  potato  famine  ex- 
tending over  all  the  United  States  and  Europe  was  caused 
by  this  disease. 

Spraying  is  the  remedy  for  potato  blight.  Fig.  128  shows 
the  effect  of  spraying  upon  the  yield.  In  this  case  the  sprayed 
field  yielded  three  hundred  and  twenty-four  bushels  an  acre, 
while  the  unsprayed  yielded  only  one  hundred  bushels  to  an 
acre.  Fig.  127  shows  the  result  of  three  applications  of  the 
spraying  mixture  on  the  diseased  field.  Figs.  129  and  130 
show  how  the  spraying  is  done. 


Vn:.  i2i).    Si'kWiNi;  Machixk 


Fig.  130.    Straw...  :ii  .   uine 
'39 


I40 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


EXERCISE 

Watch  the  potatoes  at  the  next  han-est  and  estimate  the  number  that 
is  damaged  by  scab.  You  will  remember  that  formalin  is  the  substance 
used  to  prevent  grain  smuts.  Write  to  your  state  experiment  station 
for  a  bulletin  telling  how  to  use  formalin,  as  well  as  for  information 
regarding  other  potato  diseases.  Give  the  treatment  a  fair  trial  in  a  por- 
tion of  your  field  this  j-ear  and  watch  carefully  for  results.  Make  an 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  treatment  and  of  the  profits.  How  does  the  scab 
injure  the  value  of  the  potato .'  The  late  blight  can  often  be  recognized 
b}'  its  odor.    Did  you  ever  smell  it  as  j-ou  passed  an  affected  field  ? 


Fjg.  131.   Club  Root  \ 

Club  Root.  Club  root  is  a  disease  of  the  cabbage,  turnip, 
cauliflower,  etc.  Its  general  effect  is  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion (Fig.  131).  Sometimes  this  disease  does  great  damage. 
It  can  be  prevented  by  using  from  eight}-  to  ninet}'  bushels 
of  lime  to  an  acre. 

Black  Knot.  Black  knot  is  a  serious  disease  of  the  plum 
and   of  the  cherr%-  tree.     It  attacks  the  branches   of   the 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 


141 


tree;  it  is  well  illustrated  in  Fig.  132.  Since  it  is  a  con- 
tagious disease,  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  destroy 
all  diseased  branches  of  either  wild  or  cultivated  plums  or 
cherries.    In  many  states  its  destruction  is  enforced  by  law. 


Fig.  132.    Black  K.nut 

All  black  knot  should  be  cut  out  and  burned  some  time  before 
February  of  each  year.  This  will  cost  litde  and  save  much. 
Peach  Leaf  Curl.  Peach  leaf  curl  does  damage  amount- 
ing to  about  $3,000,000  yearly  in  the  United  States.  It 
can  be  almost  entirely  prevented  by  spraying  the  tree  with 
Bordeaux   mixture    or  lime-sulphur  wash   before    the   buds 


142 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


open  in  the  spring.    It  is  not  safe  to  use  strong  Bordeaux 
mixture  on  peach  trees  when  they  are  in  leaf. 

Cotton  Wilt.  Cotton 
wilt  when  it  once  estab- 
lishes itself  in  the  soil 
completely  destroys  the 
crop.  The  fungus  re- 
mains in  the  soil,  and  no 
amount  of  spraying  will 
kill  it.  The  only  known 
remedy  is  to  cultivate  a 


Fig.  133.   Moldy  Peaches 

resistant  variety  of  cotton  or  to 
rotate  the  crop. 

Fruit  Mold.  F"ruit  mold,  or 
brown  rot,  often  attacks  the  un- 
ripe fruit  on  the  tree,  and  turns  it 
soft  and  brown  and  finally  fuzz\- 
with  a  coat  of  mildew.  Fig.  133 
shows  some  peaches  thus  attacked. 
Often  the  fruits  do  not  fall  from 
the  trees  but  shrivel  up  and  be- 
come "mummies"  (Fig.  134). 
This  rot  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
diseases  of  plums  and  peaches. 
It  probably  diminishes  the  value 
of  the  peach  har\'est  from  50  to  75  per  cent.  Spraying  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  in  the  Appendix  will  kill  the  disease. 


Fig.  134.    Peach  Mummies 


d->al 


I'lo.   135.     IlALi 


Ti.Li:   si  RAVED  To    I'KHVEN  T    PE.\CU    ClRL 


Note  the  difference  in  foliage  and  fruit  on  the  sprayed  and  unsprayed  halves  of 
the  tree,  and  the  difference  in  yield  showTi  below 


143 


CHAPTER  VII 


ORCHARD,  GARDEN,  AND  FIELD   INSECTS 


SECTION  XXXI.    INSECTS   IN   GENERAL 


The  farmer  who  has  fought  "bugs"  on  crop  after  crop 
needs  no  argument  to  convince  him  that  insects  are  serious 
enemies  to  agriculture.    Yet  even  he  may  be  surprised  to 

learn  that  the  damage 
done  by  them,  as  esti- 
mated by  good  authorit}-, 
amounts  to  millions  and 
millions  of  dollars  yearly 
in  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

Even,-  one  thinks  he 
knows  what  an  insect  is. 
If,  however,  we  are  will- 
ing in  this  matter  to  make 
our  notion  agree  with  that 
of  the  people  who  have 
studied  insects  most  and 
know  them  best,  we  must 
include  among  the  true  insects  only  such  air-breathing  animals 
as  have  six  legs,  no  more,  and  have  the  body  divided  into 
three  parts  —  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  These  parts  are 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  136,  which  represents  the  ant,  a  true 
insect.    All  insects  do  not  show  the  divisions  of  the  body  so 

144 


Fig.  136.    Ants 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN.  AND   FIELD   INSECTS      US 

clearly  as  this  figure  shows  them,  but  on  careful  examination 
you  can  usually  make  them  out.    The  head  bears  one  pair  of 

■Antennae  

Orqan      /k^j^y<S^ 
oundEye  //'\^y^yU'^'\\ 

im     rr^  y^:      / Vy  /\\     /  / 

Ovipositor 


Fig.  137.    Parts  ok  an  Insect 

feelers,  and  these  in  many  insects  ser\-e  also  as  organs  of  smell 
and  sometimes  of  hearing.  Less  prominent  feelers  are  to 
be  found  in  the  region  of  the  mouth. 
These  ser\e  as  organs  of  taste. 

The  eyes  of  insects  are  especially 
noticeable.  Close  examination  shows 
them  to  be  made  up  of  a  thousand  or 
more  simple  eyes.  Such  an  eye  is 
called  a  compound  eye.  An  enlarged 
\iew  of  one  of  these  is  shown  in 
Fig.  138. 

Attached  to  the  thorax  are  the  legs 
and  also  the  wings,  if  the  insect  has 
A\-ings.     The  rear  portion  is  the  ab- 
domen, and  this,  like  the  other  parts,  is  composed  of  parts 
known  as  segments.    The  insect  breathes  through  openings 
in  the  abdomen  and  thorax  called  spiracles  (see  Fig.  137). 


Fig.  13S.  CoMPoiND  Eye 
OF  Dr.\gon  Fly 


146 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGINNERS 


An  examination  of  spiders,  mites,  and  ticks  shows  eight 
legs ;  therefore  these  do  not  belong  to  the  true  insects,  nor 
do  the  thousand-legged  worms  and  their  relatives. 

The  chief  classes  of  insects  are  as  follows  :  the  flies,  with 
two  wings  only  ;  the  bees,  wasps,  and  ants,  with  four  delicate 
wings ;  the  beetles,  \\'ith  four  wings  —  two  hard,  homy  ones 
covering  the  two  more  delicate  ones.  When  the  beetle  is  at 
rest  its  two  hard  wings  meet  in  a  straight  line  down  the 
back.  This  peculiarit\-  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  true 
bug,  which  has  four  mngs. 
The   two    outer   winsrs    arc 


Fig.  139.   The  Hoise  Fly 

1?.  egg  :  fi.  lar\-a.  or  maggot :  <-,  pupa ;  tf.  adult  male.    (All  enlarged) 

partly  homy,  and  in  folding  lap  over  each  other.  Butterflies 
and  moths  are  much  alike  in  appearance  but  differ  in  habit. 
The  butterfly  works  by  day  and  the  moth  by  night.  Note 
the  knob  on  the  end  of  the  butterfly's  feeler  (Fig.  143). 
The  moth  has  no  such  knob. 

It  is  important  to  know  how  insects  take  their  food,  for 
by  kno\nng  this  we  are  often  able  to  destrov  insect  pests. 
Some  are  provided  with  mouth  parts  for  chewing  their 
food ;  others  have  a  long  tube  with  which  they  pierce  plants 
or  animals  and,  like  the   mosquito,   suck  their  food  from 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN.  AND   FIELD   INSECTS      147 


adult :   b.  side  view  of  sucking  mouth-part 
Both  a  and  b  are  much  enlarged 


the  inside.     Insects  of  this  latter  class  cannot  of  course  be 
harmed  bv  poison  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  on  which 

they  feed. 

Many  insects  change 
tlieir  form  from  youth  to  old 
age  so  much  that  you  can 
scarcely  recognize  them 
as  the  same  creatures. 
First  comes  the  egg.  The 
egg  hatches  into  a  worm- 
A  Typical  Big  like  animal  known  as  a 

grub,  maggot,  or  cater- 
pillar, or.  as  scientists  call 
it,  a  lafi'a.  This  creature  feeds  and  grows  until  finally  it  settles 
down  and  spins  a  home 
of  silk,  called  a  cocoon 
(Fig.  1431.  If  we  open 
the  cocoon  we  shall  find 
that  the  animal  is  now 
covered  with  a  hard  out- 
side skeleton,  that  it  can- 
not move  freely,  and  that 
it  cannot  eat  at  all.  The 
animal  in  this  state  is 
known  as  the ////a  (Figs. 
145  and  146).  Some- 
times, however,  the  pupa 
is  not  covered  by  a  co- 
coon, sometimes  it  is  soft, 
and  sometimes  it  has 
some  power  of  motion  (F"ig.  141 ).  After  a  rest  in  the  pupa 
stage  the  animal  comes  out  a  mature  insect  (Figs.  142  and  143). 


Fir..  141. 
larva  :  b.  puf>a  : 


Beetle 
.  adult :  (/.  burrow 


148 


AGRICULTURE  F^I'R  BEGINNERS 


From  this  you  can  see  that  it  is  especially  important  to 
know  all  you  can  about  the  life  of  injurious  insects,  since  it 
is  often  easier  to  kill  these  pests  at  one  stage  of  their  life 
than  at  another.   Often  it  is  bdtter  to  aim  at  destroying  the 


Fig.  14Z.   MoTM  aso  Cocoos 

the  lar\^  that  hatch  from  its  eggs,  although,  as  you  must 
remember,  it  is  generaUy  the  larvae  that  do  the  most  harm. 
Larvae  grow  ven-  rapidly;  therefore  the  food  supply  must 
be  great  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  insect 

Some  insects,  the  grasshopper  for  example,  do  not  com- 
pletely change  their  form.  Fig.  147  represents  some  \x>ung 
grasshoppers,  w^hich  vei>'  closely  resemble  their  parents. 


Fig.   143.     BlTTERFLY 


Abdomen,  of  Bioiterfl.ij 


Tkora.c  of  Butterfly 


/  "~  ^  -^^-  ^     '  True  Legs 

Spimcle  Prole'gs-  I'Bufter/lijXegs) 

(Ternpomrij  CaierpiUa,r 
Structures  ) 


Fig.  144.    Structure  of  the  Caterpill.vr 


149 


ISO 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Insects  lay  many  eggs  and  reproduce  with  remarkable 
rapidity.  Their  number  therefore  makes  them  a  foe  to  be 
much  dreaded.  The  queen  hone}^bee  often  la\-s  as  many  as 
4(xx>  eggs  in  twent\'-four  hours.  A  singie  house  fly  lays 
between  loo  and  150  eggs  in  one  day.    The  mosquito  lays 


eggs  in  quantities  of  from  200  to  400.  The  white  ant  often 
lays  80,000  in  a  day,  and  so  continues  for  two  years, 
probably  lajing  no  less  than  40,000,000  eggs.  In  one 
sunmier  the  bludxitde  fly  could  have  500,000,000  de- 
scendants if  they  all  Uved.  The  plant  louse,  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  brood,  has  laid  in  a  single  year  enough  e^s  to 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN'.  AND  FIELD  INSECTS     151 


produce  300,000,000  young.  Of  course  ever)-  one  knows 
that,  owing  to  enemies  and  diseases  (for  the  insects  have 
enemies  which  prey  on  them 
just  as  they  prey  on  plants) 
comparatively  few  of  the  in- 
sects hatched  from  these 
eggs  lixe  till  they  are  grown. 
The  number  of  insects 
which  are  hurtful  to  crops, 
gardens,  flowers,  and  forests 
seems  to  be  increasing  each 
season.  Therefore  farm  bo\"s 
and  girls  should  learn  to 
recognize  these  harmful  in- 
sects and  to  know  how 
they  live  and  how  they  may 
be  destroyed.  Those  who 
know  the  forms  and  habits  of  these  enemies  of  plants  and 
trees  are  far  better  prepared  to  fight  them  than  are  those 
who  strike  in  the  dark.  Moreover  such 
knowledge  is  always  a  source  of  interest 
and  pleasure.  If  you  begin  to  studv  in- 
sects, vou  will  soon 


Fig.  146.    -1  ^ -KFLY  Pupa 

N'ote  outline  of  the  butterflv 


Tf^^ 


iV 


/. 


:-\-^ 


^':Tm^- 


Fig.  147.  The 
Growth  of  a 
Grasshopper 


find    }our    love    for 
the  stud)-  growing. 

EXERCISE 

Collect    cocoons   and 
pupae     of    insects     and 


^  ^  hatch  them  in  a  breeding- 

cage  similar  to  the  one 
illustrated  in  Fig.  149.  Make  several  cages  of  this  kind.  Collect  lar\-ae 
of  several  kinds :   supply  them  with  food  from  plants  upon  which  you 


1^2 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXNERS 


found  them.    Find  out  the  time  it  takes  them  to  change  into  another 

stage.    Write  a  description  of  this  process. 

The  plaijt  louse  could  produce  in  its  twelfth  brood  lo.ooo.ooo.ooo,- 

000,000.000.000  offspring.    Each  louse  is  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch 

long.  If  all  should  live  and  be  arranged 
in  single  file,  how  many  miles  long 
would  such  a  procession  be.^ 


Fig.  149.    C.^vGE  ix  which 
TO  BREED  Insects 

nower-pot,  lamp-chimnej',  and 
cloth 


SECTION  XXXII.    ORCHARD  INSECTS 

The  San  Jose  Scale.  The  San  Jose  scale  is  one  of  the 
most  dreaded  enemies  of  fnait  trees.  It  is  in  fact  an  outlaw 
in  many  states.  It  is  an  unlavi-ful  act  to  sell  fruit  trees  affected 
by  it.  Fig.  150  shows  a  view  of  a  branch  nearly  covered  with 
this  pest.    Although  this  scale  is  a  ver\'  minute  animal,  }"et 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN.  AND   FIELD   IX.SECiS      1^3 


SO  rapidly  does  it  multiply  that  it  is  very  dangerous  to  the 
tree.  Never  allow  new  trees  to  be  brought  into  your  orchard 
until  you  feel  certain  that  they  are  free  from  the  San  Jose 
scale.  If,  however,  it  should  in  any  way  gain  access  to  your 
orchard,  you  can  prevent  its  spreading  by  thorough  spraving 
with  what  is  known  as  the  lime-sulphur  mixture.  This  mix- 
ture has  long  been  used  on  the  Pacific  coast  as  a  remedy  for 
various  scale  insects.  W'^hen 
it  was  first  tried  in  other 


parts  of  the  United  States  the  results  were  not  satisfacton^ 
and  its  use  was  abandoned.  However,  later  experiments  with 
it  have  proved  that  the  mixture  is  thoroughly  effective  in  kill- 
ing this  scale  and  that  it  is  perfectly  harmless  to  the  trees. 
Until  the  lime-sulphur  mixture  proved  to  be  successful  the 
San  Jose  scale  was  a  most  dreaded  nurser}-  and  orchard  foe. 
It  was  even  thought  necessar)-  to  destroy  infected  trees.  The 
lime-sulphur  mixture  and  some  other  sulphur  washes  not 
onlv  kill  the  San  Jose  scale  but  are  also  useful  in  reducing- 
fungous  injur}-. 


154 


AGRICULTURE   FOR   BEGINNERS 


There  are  several  ways  of  making  the  lime-sulphur  mixture. 
It  is  generally  best  to  buy  a  prepared  mixture  from  some 
trustworthy  dealer.  If  you  find  the  scale  on  your  trees,  write  to 
your  state  experiment  station  for  directions  for  combating  it. 
The  Codling  Moth.  The  codling  moth  attacks  the  apple 
and  often  causes  a  loss  of  from  t^venty-five  to  seventy-five 

per  cent  of  the 
crop.  In  the  state 
of  Xew  York  this 
insect  is  causing 
an  annual  loss  of 
about  three  million 
dollars.  The  effect 
it  has  on  the  fruit 
is  most  clearly  seen 
in  Fig.  152.  The 
moth  lays  its  egg 
upon  the  young 
leaves  just  after 
the  falling  of  the 
blossom.  She  flies 
on  from  apple  to 
apple,  depositing 
an  egg  each  time 
until  from  fift)-  to 
seventy-five  eggs  are  deposited.  The  larva,  or  "  worm,"  soon 
hatches  and  eats  its  way  into  the  apple.  Many  affected  apples 
ripen  too  soon  and  drop  as  "  windfalls."  Others  remain  on 
the  tree  and  become  the  common  wormy  apples  so  familiar 
to  growers.  The  lar\'a  that  emerges  from  the  windfalls  moves 
generally  to  a  tree,  crawls  up  the  trunk,  and  spins  its  cocoon 
under  a  ridge  in  the  bark.   From  the  cocoon  the  moth  comes 


Fig.  152.    The  Codling  Moth 

a,  burrow  of  worm  in  apple  :  i.  place  where  worm  enters  : 
c,  place  where  worm  leaves ;  e,  the  larva ;  d.  the  pupa : 
/.  the  cocoon  :  _/ and  g;  moths :  /i,  magnified  head  of  lar\-a 


•55 


1^6 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


ready  to  start  a  new  generation.   The  last  generation  of  the 
lar\'as  spends  the  winter  in  the  cocoon. 

Trcatinctit.  Destroy  orchard  trash  which  may  serve  as 
a  winter  home.  Scrape  all  loose  bark  from  the  tree.  Spray 
the  tree  with  arsenate  of  lead  as  soon  as  the  flowers  fall.  A 
former  method  of  fighting  this  pest  was  as  follows  :  bands 
of  burlap  four  inches  wide  tied  around  the  tree  furnished  a 
hiding-place  for  larvae  that  came  from  windfalls  or  crawled 

from  wormy  ap- 


pies  on  the  tree. 
The  lan^ae  caught 
under  the  bands 
were  killed  every 
five  or  six  days. 
W'e  know  now, 
however,  that  a 
thorough  spray- 
ing just  after  the 
blossoms  fall  kills 
the  worms  and 
renders  the  bands  unnecessary.  Furthermore,  spraying  pre- 
vents wormy  apples,  while  banding  does  not.  Follow  the 
first  spraying  by  a  second  two  weeks  later. 

It  is  best  to  use  lime-sulphur  mixture  or  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  with  arsenate  of  lead  for  a  spray.  Thus  one  spray- 
ing serves  against  both  fungi  and  insects. 

The  Plum  Curculio.  The  plum  curculio,  sometimes  called 
the  plum  weevil,  is  a  little  creature  about  one  fifth  of  an  inch 
long.  In  spite  of  its  small  size  the  curculio  does,  if  neglected, 
great  damage  to  our  fruit  crop.  It  injures  peaches,  plums,  and 
cherries  by  stinging  the  fruit  as  soon  as  it  is  formed.  The 
word  "  stinging  "  when  applied  to  insects  —  and  this  case  is 


Fig.  154.    Plum  Curculio 
Lana,  pupa,  adult,  and  mark  on  the  fruit.    (Enlarged) 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN,  AND   FIELD   INSECTS      157 


no  exception  —  means  piercing  the  object  with  the  egg-layer 
(ovipositor)  and  depositing  the  egg.  Some  insects  occasion- 
ally use  the  ovipositor  merely  for  defense.  The  curculio  has 
an  especially  interesting  method  of  laying  her  egg.  First  she 
digs  a  hole,  in  which  she  places  the  egg  and  pushes  it  well 
down.  Then  with  her  snout  she  makes  a  crescent-shaped  cut 
in  the  skin  of  the  plum,  around  the  egg.  This  mark  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1 54.  As  this  peculiar  cut  is  followed  by  a  flow  of  gum, 
you  will  always  be  able  to 
recognize  the  work  of  the 
curculio.  Having  finished 
with  one  plum,  this  indus- 
trious worker  makes  her 
way  to  other  plums  until 
her  eggs  are  all  laid. 
The  maggotlike  larva  soon 
hatches,  burrows  through 
the  fruit,  and  causes  it  to 
drop  before  ripening.  The 
larva  then  enters  the  ground 
to  a  depth  of  several  inches. 

There  it  becomes  a  pupa,  and  later,  as  a  mature  beetle,  emerges 
and  winters  in  cracks  and  crevices. 

Treatment.  Burn  orchard  trash  which  mav  serve  as  winter 
quarters.  Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  using  two  pounds 
of  the  mixture  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  is  the  only  successful 
treatment  for  the  curculio.  For  plums  and  peaches,  sprav  first 
when  the  fruit  is  free  from  the  calyx  caps,  or  dried  flower- 
buds.  Repeat  the  spraying  two  weeks  later.  For  late  peaches 
spray  a  third  time  two  weeks  after  the  second  spraving.  This 
poisonous  spray  will  kill  the  beetles  while  they  are  feeding 
or  cutting  holes  in  which  to  lay  their  eggs. 


I 


t^ 


Fig.  155.   Leaf  Galls  of  Phylloxera 
ON  Clintox  Grape  Leaf 


158 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGINNERS 


r'r 


-..  ^ 


■-  ti^. 


Fig.  156.  The 
Cankerworm 


Fowls  in  the  orchard  do  good  by  capturing 
the  larvae  before  they  can  burrow,  while  hogs 
will  destroy  the  fallen  fruit  before  the  larvae 
can  escape. 

The  Grape  Phylloxera.  The  grape  phyl- 
loxera is  a  serious  pest.  You  have  no  doubt 
seen  its  galls  upon  the  grape  leaf.  These  galls 
are  caused  by  a  small  louse,  the  phylloxera. 
Each  gall  contains  a  female,  which  soon  fills 
the  gall  with  eggs.  These  hatch  into  more 
females,  which  emerge  and  form  new  galls,  and  so 
the  phylloxera  spreads  (see  Fig.  155). 

Treatment.  The  Clinton  grape  is  most  liable  to  in- 
juiy  from  this  pest.  Hence  it  is  better  to  grow  other 
more  resistant  kinds.  Sometimes  the  lice  attack  the 
roots  of  the  grape  vines.  In  many  sections  where  irrigation  is 
practiced  the  grape  rows  are  flooded  when  the  lice  are  thickest. 
The  water  drowns  the  lice  and  does  no  harm  to  the  vines. 


ORCHARD,  GARDEx\,  AND  FIELD  INSECTS     159 


The  Cankerworm.  The  cankerworm  is  the  larva  of  a 
moth.  Because  of  its  pecuHar  mode  of  crawhng,  by  looping 
its  body,  it  is  often  called  the  looping  worm  or  measuring 
worm  (Fig.  157,  r).  These  worms  are  such  greedy  eaters 
that  in  a  short  time  they  can  so  cut  the  leaves  of  an  orchard 
as  to  give  it  a  scorched  appearance.  Such  an  attack  practi- 
cally destroys  the  crop  and  does  lasting  injury  to  the  tree. 
The  worms  are 
green  or  brown 
and  are  striped 
lengthwise.  If 
the  tree  is  jarred, 
the  worm  has  a 
peculiar  habit  of 
dropping  toward 
the  ground  on  a 
silken  thread  of 
its  own  making 
(Fig.  156). 

In  early  sum- 
mer the  larvae 
burrow  within  the 
earth  and  pupate 
there  ;  later  they 
emerge  as  adults  (Fig.  i  57,  c/  and  r).  You  observe  the  peculiar 
difference  between  the  wingless  female,  d,  and  the  winged 
male,  r.  It  is  the  habit  of  this  wingless  female  to  crawl  up 
the  trimk  of  some  near-by  tree  in  order  to  deposit  her  eggs 
upon  the  twigs.  These  eggs  (shown  at  a  and  ^)  hatch  into 
the  greedy  lar\-as  that  do  so  much  damage  to  our  orchards. 

Nearly  all  the  common  birds  feed  freely  upon  the  canker- 
worm,  and  benefit  the  orchard  in  so  doing.    The  chickadee 


Fig.  157.    The  Spring  Cankerworm 

a,  egg  mass  :  fi,  egg,  magnified  ;  c,  larva  ;  (/,  female  moth  ; 
^,  male  moth 


i6o 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


is  perhaps  the  most  useful.  A  recent  writer  is  ver}-  positive 
that  each  chickadee  will  devour  on  an  average  thirty  female 
cankenvorm  moths  a  day  ;  and  that  if  the  average  number  of 
eggs  laid  by  each  female  is  one  hundred  and  eighty-five,  one 
chickadee  would  thus  destroy  in  one  day  five  thousand  five 

hundred  and  fift}'  eggs,  and,  in 
the  twenty-five  days  in  which  the 
cankenvorm  moths  crawl  up 
the  tree,  would  rid  the  orchard 
of  one  hundred  and  thirt}'-eight 
thousand  seven  hundred  and 
fifty.  These  birds  also  eat  im- 
mense numbers  of  cankerworm 
eggs  before  they  hatch  into 
worms. 

Treatment.  The  inability  of 
the  female  to  fly  gives  us  an 
easy  way  to  prevent  the  larval 
offspring  from  getting  to  the 
foliage  of  our  trees,  for  we  know 
that  the  only  highway  open  to 
her  or  her  larvae  leads  up  the 
trunk.  We  must  obstruct  this 
highway  so  that  no  crawling 
creature  may  pass.  This  is 
readily  done  by  smoothing  the 
bark  and  fitting  close  to  it  a 
band  of  paper,  and  making  sure  that  it  is  tight  enough  to 
prevent  an)thing  from  crawling  underneath.  Then  smear 
over  the  paper  something  so  sticky  that  any  moth  or  lar\'a 
that  attempts  to  pass  will  be  entangled.  Printer's  ink  will  do 
very  well,  or  you  can  buy  either  dendrolene  or  tanglefoot. 


Fig.  158.    Eggs  of  the  Fall 
Cankerworm 


Fig.  159.   Aitle-Tree  Tent  Caterpillar 
a,  eggs  :  d.  cocoon  :  i.  caterpillar 


161 


1 62 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Encourage  the  chickadee  and  all  other  birds,  except  the 
English  sparrow,  to  sta\-  in  your  orchard.  This  is  easily 
done  bv  feeding  and  protecting  them  in  their  times  of  need. 
The  Apple-Tree  Tent  Caterpillar.  The  apple-tree  tent 
caterpillar  is  a  lar\a  so  well  known  that  you  only  need  to  be 
told  how  to  guard  against  it.  The  mother  of  this  caterpillar 
is  a  reddish  moth.  This  insect  passes 
the  winter  in  the  egg  state  securely  fas- 
tened on  the  twigs  as  sho\Mi  in  Fig.  1 59,  «. 
Tiratincnt.  There  are  three  principal 
methods,  (i)  Destroy  the  eggs.  The  egg 
masses  are  readily  seen  in  winter  and  may 
easily  be  collected  and  burned  by  boys. 
The  chickadee  eats  great  quantities  of 
these  eggs.  (2)  With  torches  bum  the 
nests  at  dusk  when  all  the  worms  are 
within.  You  must  be  ven-  careful  in  burn- 
ing or  you  will  harm  the  young  branches 
with  their  tender  bark.  (3)  Encourage 
the  residence  of  birds.  Urge  your  neigh- 
bors to  make  war  on  the  lar\"ae,  too,  since 
the  pest  spreads  rapidly  from  farm  to 
farm.  Regularly  spra\-ed  orchards  are 
rarely  troubled  by  this  pest. 

The  Twig  Girdler.  The  t\vig  girdler  la\"s  her  eggs  in  the 
twigs  of  pear,  pecan,  apple,  and  other  trees.  It  is  necessarx- 
that  the  lanae  develop  in  dead  wood.  This  the  mother  pro- 
vides by  girdling  the  twig  so  deeply  that  it  will  die  and  fall 
to  the  ground. 

Treatvioit.  Since  the  larvae  spend  the  winter  in  the  dead 
twigs,  burn  these  tvvigs  in  autumn  or  early  spring  and  thus 
destroy  the  pest. 


Fig.  160.  The  Twig 
Girdler  at  its  De- 
structive Work 

rt,  the  girdler;  b,  the  egg- 
hole  :  r,  the  groove  cut 
by  girdler ;  e,  the  egg 


ORCHARD,  GARDEN'.  AND   FIELD  INSECTS     163 

The  Peach-Tree  Borer.  In  Fig.  161  you  see  the  effect  of 
the  peach-tree  borer's  acti\-it}-.  These  borers  often  girdle  and 
thereby  kill  a  tree.  Fig.  162  shows  the  adult  state  of  the 
insect.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  peach  or  plum  trees  near  the 
ground.  As  soon  as  the  lana  emerges,  it  bores  into  the  bark 


Fig.  161.   Borer  Sig.xs  .\ruixd  Base  of  Pe.\ch  Tree 


and  remains  there  for  months,  passing  through  the  pupa 
stage  before  it  comes  out  to  lay  eggs  for  another  generation. 
Treatment.  If  there  are  only  a  few  trees  in  the  orchard, 
digging  the  worms  out  \nth  a  knife  is  the  best  way  of  destroy- 
ing them.  You  can  know  of  the  borer's  presence  by  the 
exuding  gum  often  seen  on  the  tree-trunk.  If  you  pile  earth 
around  the  roots  early  in  the  spring  and  remove  it  in  the  late 
fall,  the  winter  freezing  and  thawing  will  kill  many  of  the  lanas. 


164 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


EXERCISE 

How  many  apples  per  hundred  do  you  find  injured  by  the  codling^ 
moth  ?  Collect  some  cocoons  from  a  pear  or  an  apple  tree  in  winter,  place 
in  a  breeding-cage,  and  watch  for  the  moths  that  come  out.  Do  you 
ever  see  the  woodpecker  hunting  for  these  same  cocoons  ?  Can  you  find 
cocoons  that  have  been  emptied  by  this  bird  ?  Estimate  how  many  he 
considers  a  day's  ration.    How  many  apples  does  he  thus  save? 


Fig.  16::.    Pe.a.ch-Tree  Borers,  Male  and  Female 
Female  with  broad  yellow  band  across  abdomen 

Watch  the  curculio  lay  her  eggs  in  the  plums,  peaches,  or  cherries. 
What  per  cent  of  fruit  is  thus  injured?    Estimate  the  damage. 

Let  the  school  offer  a  prize  for  the  greatest  number  of  tent-caterpillar 
eggs.  Watch  such  trees  as  the  apple,  the  wild  and  the  cultivated  cherr)', 
the  oak.  and  many  others. 

Make  a  collection  of  insects  injurious  to  orchard  fruits,  showing  in 
each  case  the  whole  life  history  of  the  insect,  that  is.  eggs,  larva,  pupa, 
and  the  mature  insects. 


THE  TROLlW.E-MtME  CHINCH   BUG   (ENLARGED; 
I,  bugs  on  plant;   2,  eggs;  3,  young  bug;  4  and  5,  older  bugs;  6,  long- 
winged  bug ;  7  and  8,  short-winged  bug 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN.  AND   FIELD   INSECTS      16  = 


SECTION   XXXIII.    GARDEN   AND   FIELD    INSECTS 


The  Cabbage  Worm.  The  cabbage  worm  of  the  early 
spring  garden  is  a  familiar  object,  but  you  may  not  know 
that  the  innocent-looking  little  white  butterflies  hovering 
about  the  cabbage  patch  are  laying  eggs  which  are  soon  to 
hatch  and  make  the  dreaded  cabbage  worms.  In  Fig.  164 
a  and  b  show  the  common  cabbage  butterfly,  c  shows  several 
examples  of  the  caterpillar,  and  d 
shows  the  pupa  case.  In  the  pupa 
stage  the  insects  pass  the  winter 
among  the  remains  of  old  plants  or  in 
near-by  fences  or  in  weeds  or  bushes. 
Cleaning  up  and  burning  all  trash 
will  destroy  many  pupae  and  thus 
prevent  many  cabbage  worms.  In 
Fig.  1 64  c  and  /  show  the  moth  and 
zebra  caterpillar  ;  g  represents  a  moth 
which  is  the  parent  of  the  small  green 
worm  shown  at  //.  This  worm  is  a 
common  foe  of  the  cabbage  plant. 

Trcatvicnt.  Birds  aid  in  the  destruction  of  this  pest.  Paris 
green  mixed  with  air-slaked  lime  will  also  kill  many  lar\ae. 
After  the  cabbage  has  headed,  it  is  ver}-  difficult  to  destroy 
the  worm,  but  pyrethrum  insect  powder  used  freely  is  helpful. 

The  Chinch  Bug.  The  chinch  bug,  attacking  as  it  does 
such  important  crops  as  wheat,  corn,  and  grasses,  is  a  well- 
known  pest.  It  probably  causes  more  money  loss  than  any 
other  garden  or  field  enemy.  In  Orange  county,  North  Caro- 
lina, farmers  were  once  obliged  to  suspend  wheat-growing  for 
two  years  on  account  of  the  chinch  bug.  In  one  year  in  the 
state  of  Illinois  this  bug  caused  a  loss  of  four  million  dollars. 


Fir. 


163.    The  Dreaded 
Chinch  Bug 


Fig.  164.    Cabbage  Worms  and  Butterflies 


166 


ORCHARD,  GARDEN.  AND  FIELD   INSECTS      167 


Treatment.  Unfortunately  we  cannot  prevent  all  of  the 
damage  done  by  chinch  bugs,  but  we  can  diminish  it  some- 
what by  good  clean  agriculture.  Destroy  the  winter  homes  of 
the  insect  by  burning  drv-  grass,  leaves,  and  rubbish  in  fields 
and  fence  rows.  Although  the  insect  has  wings,  it  seldom  or 
never  uses  them,  usually  traveling  on  foot ;  therefore  a  deep 
furrow  around  the  field  to  be  protected  will  hinder  or  stop 
the  progress  of  an  invasion.  The 
bugs  fall  into  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row, and  may  there  be  killed  by  drag- 
ging a  log  up  and  down  the  furrow. 
Write  to  the  Division  of  Entomolog}-. 
Washington,  for  bulletins  on  the 
chinch  bug.  Other  methods  of  preven- 
tion are  to  be  found  in  these  bulletins. 

The  Plant  Louse.  The  plant  louse 
is  ver)-  small,  but  it  multiplies  with 
ver}-  great  rapidit}-.  During  the  sum- 
mer the  young  are  bom  alive,  and 
it^  is  only  toward  fall  that  eggs  are 
laid.  The  individuals  that  hatch  from 
eggs  are  generally  wingless  females, 
and  their  young,  bom  alive,  are  both 
winged  and  wingless.  The  winged  forms  fl}-  to  other  plants 
and  start  new  colonies.  Plant  lice  mature  in  from  eight  to 
fourteen  da}s. 

The  plant  louse  gives  off  a  sweetish  fluid  of  which  some 
ants  are  ver\-  fond.  You  mav  often  see  the  ants  stroking: 
these  lice  to  induce  them  to  give  off  a  freer  flow  of  the 
"honey  dew."  This  is  really  a  method  of  milking.  However 
friendly  and  useful  these  "  cows  "  may  be  to  the  ant,  they 
are  enemies  to  man  in  destroying  so  many  of  his  plants. 


Fig.  165.    A  Plant 
LoisE 


i68 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGIXXERS 


Treatment.    These  are  sucking  insects.    Poisons  therefore 
do  not  avail.    Thev  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  kerosene 

emulsion  or  a  strong  soap 
solution  or  with  tobacco 
water.  Lice  on  cabbages 
are  easily  killed  by  a  mix- 
ture of  one  pound  of  lye 
soap  in  four  gallons  of 
warm  water. 

The  Squash  Bug.  The 
squash  bug  does  its  great- 
est   damage     to    young 
plants.  To  such  its  attack 
is  often  fatal.    On  larger 
plants  single  leaves  may 
die.    This  insect  is  a  seri- 
ous enemy  to  a  crop  and  is 
particularly  difficult  to  get  rid  of,  since  it  belongs  to  the  class 
of  sucking  insects,  not  to  the  biting  insects.    For  this  reason 
poisons  are  useless. 


Fig.  i66.    A  Cheap  Spr-\yixg  Oitfit 


V 


Treatvient.  About  the 
only  practicable  remedy 
is  to  pick  these  insects 
by  hand.  We  can,  how- 
ever, protect  our  young 
plants  by  small  nettings 
and  thus  tide  them  over 
the  most  dangerous  period 
of  their  lives .  T  hese  bugs 
greatly  prefer  the  squash  as  food.  You  can  therefore  dimin- 
ish their  attack  on  your  melons,  cucumbers,  etc.  by  planting 
among  the  melons  an  occasional  squash  plant  as  a  "trap  plant." 


Fig.  167.   A  Squash  Big 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN.  AND   FIELD   INSECTS     169 

Hand  picking  will  be  easier  on  a  few  trap  plants  than  over  the 
whole  field.  A  small  board  or  large  leaf  laid  beside  the  young 
plant  often  furnishes  night  shelter  for  the  bugs.  The  bugs 
collected  under  the  board  may  easily  be  killed  everv'  morning. 

The  Flea-Beetle.  The  flea-beetle  inflicts  much  damage  on 
the  potato,  tomato,  eggplant,  and  other  garden  plants.  The 
accompanying  figure  shows  the  common  striped  flea-beede 
which  lives  on  the  tomato.  The  lana  of  this  beetle  lives  in- 
side of  the  leaves,  mining  its  way  through  the  leaf  in  a  real 
tunnel.  Any  substance  disagreeable 
to  the  beetle,  such  as  plaster,  soot, 
ashes,  or  tobacco,  \\-ill  repel  its  at- 
tacks on  the  garden  crops.  i 

The  Weevil.    The  weevil  is  com-  ^ 
monlv  found  among  seeds.    Its  at- 
tacks  are  serious,  but  the  insect  may 
easily  be  destroyed. 

Treatment.  Put  the  infected  seeds      fig.  16S.  FllvBeetle 
in  an  air-tight  box  or  bin,  placing  and  l.a.rva 

on   the    top   of    the    pile    a   dish    con-  •'•  l^n^ :  b,  adult.   Unes  on  sides 
.    .  ,  1  ■      1    1  •  1  1  ,  show  real  length  of  insects 

tammg  carbon  disulphide,  a  table- 
spoonful  to  a  bushel  of  seeds.  The  fumes  of  this  substance 
are  hea\y  and  will  pass  through  the  mass  of  seeds  below 
and  kill  all  the  weevils  and  other  animals  there.  The  bin 
should  be  closely  covered  with  canvas  or  hea\y  cloth  to 
prevent  the  fumes  from  being  carried  away  by  the  air.  Let 
the  seeds  remain  thus  from  two  to  five  days.  Rep)eat  the 
treatment  if  any  weevils  are  found  alive.  Fumigate  when  the 
temperature  is  70°  Fahrenheit  or  above.  In  cold  weather 
or  in  a  loose  bin  the  treatment  is  not  successful.  Caution  : 
Do  not  approach  the  bin  with  a  light,  since  the  fumes  of 
the  chemical  used  are  highly  inflammable. 


I/O  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

The  Hessian  Fly.    The  Hessian  fly  does  more  damage  to 

the  wheat  crop  than  all  other  insects  combined,  and  probably 

ranks  next  to  the  chinch  bug  as  the  second  worst  insect 

enemy  of  the  farmer.    It  was  probably  introduced  into  this 

countr\-  by  the  Hessian  troops  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution. 

In  autumn  the  insect  lays  its  eggs  in  the  leaves  of  the 

wheat.    These  hatch  into  the  lan'ae,  which  move  dovMi  into 

the  crown  of  the  plant,  where  they  pass  the  winter.    There 

they  cause  on  the  plant  a  slight  gall  formation,  which  injures 

or  kills  the  plant.    In 

the  spring  adult  flies 

emerge  and  lay  eggs. 

The  larvae  that  hatch 

feed  in  the  lower  joints 

of  the  growing  w^heat 

and  prevent  its  proper 

growth.    These  lar\ae 

^^      pupate  and  remain  as 
Fig.  i6q.    The  Hessian  i  j  :  •  i  i 

pupae    m    the    wheat 

stubble  during  the  summer.    The  fall  brood  of  flies  appears 

shortly  before  the  first  hea\y  frost. 

Treatment.  Bum  all  stubble  and  trash  during  July  and 
August.  If  the  fly  is  ver\-  bad,  it  is  well  to  leave  the  stubble 
unusually  high  to  insure  a  rapid  spread  of  the  fire.  Burn 
refuse  from  the  threshing-machine,  since  this  often  harbors 
many  larxae  or  pupae.  Follow  the  burning  by  deep  plowing,  be- 
cause the  burning  cannot  reach  the  insects  that  are  in  the  base 
of  the  plants.  Delay  the  fall  planting  until  time  for  heavy  frosts. 

The  Potato  Beetle  ;  Tobacco  Worm.  The  potato  beetle, 
tobacco  worm,  etc.,  are  too  well  known  to  need  description. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  no  good  farmer  will  neglect  to  protect 
his  crop  from  any  pest  that  threatens  it. 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN.  AND   FIELD  INSECTS      ijl 

The  increase,  owing  to  various  causes,  of  insects,  of 
fungi,  of  bacterial  diseases,  makes  a  study  of  these  pests, 
of  their  origin,  and  of  their  prevention  a  necessar\-  part  of 
a  successful  farmer's  training.  Tillage  alone  will  no  longer 
render  orchard,  \-ineyard,  and  garden  fruitful.  Protection 
from  even-  form  of  plant  enemies  must  be  added  to  tillage. 


r  iL..  170.    :?iKA\i.N'-.    int.  <^'t\i,  ii-AMj 
One  wav  of  increasing  the  \-ield  of  fruit 


In  dealing  with  plants,  as  with  human  beings,  the  great 
object  should  be  not  the  cure  but  the  prevention  of  disease. 
If  disease  can  be  prevented,  it  is  far  too  costly  to  wait  for 
it  to  develop  and  then  to  attempt  its  cure.  Men  of  science 
are  studying  the  new  forms  of  diseases  and  new  insects  as 
fast  as  they  appear.  These  men  are  finding  ways  of  fighting 
old  and  new  enemies.  Young  people  who  expect  to  farm 
should  earlv  learn  to  follow  their  adnce. 


172 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGIXXERS 


EXERCISE 

How  does  the  squash  bug  resemble  the  plant  louse?  Is  this  a  true 
bug?  Gather  some  eggs  and  watch  the  development  of  the  insects 
in  a  breeding<age.  Estimate  the  damage  done  to  some  crops  by 
the  flea-beetle.     What  is  the  best  method  of  prevention? 


Fig.  171.    A.N  Apple  Tree  showing  Proper  C.\re 


Do  you  know  the  large  moth  that  is  the  mother  of  the  tobacco 
worm?  You  may  often  see  her  \-isiting  the  blossoms  of  the  Jimson 
weed.  Some  tobacco-growers  cultivate  a  few  of  these  weeds  in  a 
tobacco  field.  In  the  blossom  they  place  a  little  cobalt  or  "fly-stone" 
and  sirup.  When  the  tobacco-worm  moth  %-isits  this  flower  and  sips 
the  poisoned  nectar,  she  will  of  course  lav  no  more  troublesome  eggs. 


ORCHARD.  GARDEN.  AND   FIELD  INSECTS     IJS 


SECTION   XXXIV.    THE   COTTON-BOLL  WEEVIL 

So  far  as  known,  the  cotton-boll  \vee\il,  an  insect  which  is 
a  native  of  the  tropics,  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  River  into 
Texas  in  1891  and  1892.  It  settled  in  the  cotton  fields 
around  Brownsville.  Since  then  it  has  widened  its  destruc- 
tive area  until  now  it  has  invaded  the  whole  territory'  shown 
by  the  map  on  page  177. 

This  weevil  is  a  small 
gray  or  reddish-brown  snout- 
beetle  hardly  over  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  length.  In 
proportion  to  its  length  it 
has  a  long  beak.  It  belongs 
to  a  family  of  beetles  which 
breed  in  pods,  in  seeds, 
and  in  stalks  of  plants.  It 
is  a  greedy  eater,  but  feeds 
only  on  the  cotton  plant. 

The  sjown  weevils  tr\-  to 


Fig.  172.   Adult  Cottox-Boll 
Weevil 
Enlarged 


outlive  the  cold  of  winter  by  hiding  snugly  away  under  grass 
clumps,  cotton-stalks,  rubbish,  or  under  the  bark  of  trees. 
Sometimes  they  go  down  into  holes  in  the  ground.  A  com- 
fortable shelter  is  often  found  in  the  forests  near  the  cotton 
fields,  especially  in  the  moss  on  the  trees.  The  weevils  can 
stand  a  good  deal  of  cold,  but  fortunately  many  are  killed 
by  winter  weather.  Moreover  birds  destroy  many  ;  hence  by 
spring  the  last  year's  crop  is  ver\'  greatly  diminished. 

In  the  spring,  generally  about  the  time  cotton  begins 
to  form  "  squares,"  the  weevils  shake  off  their  long  winter 
sleep  and  enter  the  cotton  fields  with  appetites  as  sharp  as 
razors.   Then  shortly  the  females  begin  to  lay  eggs.    At  first 


174 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


these  eggs  are  laid  only  in  the  squares,  and  generally  only 
one  to  the  square.  The  young  grub  hatches  from  these  eggs 
in  two  or  three  days.  The  newly  hatched  grub  eats  the  in- 
side of  the  square,  and  the  square  soon  falls  to  the  ground. 

Entire  fields  mav  at  times  be 


Fig.  173.    Eggs  among  the 

Anthers  of  a  Sqiwre  at 

THE    Point    indicated    by 

THE  Arrow 


Fk;.  174.  Cross  Section 
SHOWING  Anthers  of  a 
Square  with  Egg  of 
Weevil,  and  showing 
the  Hole  where  the 
Egg  was  deposited 


seen  without  a  single  square  on 

the    plants.      Of   course    no   fruit  Greatly  enlarged 

can  be  formed  without  squares. 

In  from  one  to  two  weeks  the  grub  or  larva  becomes  fully 
grown  and,  without  changing  its  home,  is  transformed  into 
the  pupa  state.  Then  in  about  a  week  more  the  pupae  come 
out  as  adult  weevils  and  attack  the  bolls.  They  puncture 
them  with  their  snouts  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  bolls.  The 
young  grubs,  this  time  hatching  out  in  the  boll,  remain  there 
until  grown,  when  they  emerge  through  holes  that  the\-  make. 


ORCHARD,  GARDKX.  AND   HELD   INSECTS     175 


Fig.  175.    The  Larva  of  the  Cotton- 
Boll  Weevil  ixjiring  a  Soiare 

At  present  there  seem  but  few  way 
grow  cotton  that  will  mature 
too  early  for  the  weevils  to  do 
it  much  harm.  A  second  is 
to  kill  as  many  wee\41s  as  pos- 
sible by  burning  the  homes 
that  shelter  them  in  winter. 


These  holes  allow  damf>- 
ness  to  enter  and  de- 
stroy the  bolls.  This 
life-round  continues  un- 
til cold  weather  drives 
the  insects  to  their  %\-in- 
ter  quarters.  By-  that 
time  they  have  increased 
so  rapidly  that  there  is 
often  one  for  ever)-  boll 
in  the  field. 

This  weevil  is  prov- 
ing very  hard  to  destroy. 
s  to  fitfht  it.    One  is  to 


K:  ,.   I-'       .       \  i>v  Cotton-Boll 

Weevil  kkom  Aiit>vE  and  below 

Greatly  enlarged 


Fig.  177.  The  PiPA  OK  THE 

CoTTo.N-BoLL  Weevil  in  a 

Square 


1/6 


AGRICULTLRE   FOR   BEGINNERS 


The  places  best  adapted  for  a  winter  home  for  the  weevil 
are  trash  piles,  rubbish,  driftwood,  rotten  wood,  weeds,  moss 

on  trees,  etc.  A  further  help, 
therefore,  in  destroying  the 
weevil  is  to  cut  down  and 
burn  all  cotton-stalks  as  soon 
as  the  cotton  is  harvested. 


Fig.  178.  A  Cotton  Boll  with 
Feeding-Hole-s  of  Weevil,  and 
BEARING  Three  Specimens  of  the 

Insect 


Fig.  179.   The  Mexican 

Cotton-Boll     \Veevil, 

showing   Stricttre 


This  destroys  countless  numbers  of  lar\^ae  and  pupae  in  the 
bolls  and  orreatlv  reduces  the  number  of  weevils.    In  addition. 


Fk;.  iSo. 


A  Series  of  Fill-Grown  Wekvils.  showing 
Variations  in  Size 


all  cornstalks,  all  trash,  all  large  clumps  of  grass  in  neigh- 
boring fields,  should  be  burned,  so  as  to  destroy  these  winter 
homes  of  the  weevil.  Also  avoid  planting  cotton  near  trees. 
The  bark,  moss,  and  fallen  leaves  of  the. tree  furnish  a 
winter  shelter  for  the  weevils. 


ORCHARD,  GARDEN,  AND  FIELD  INSECTS     177 

A  third  help  in  destroying  the  weevil  is  to  rotate  crops. 
If  cotton  does  not  follow  cotton,  the  weevil  has  nothing  on 
which  to  feed  the  second  year. 

In  adopting  the  first  method  mentioned  the  cotton  growers 
have  found  that  bv  the  careful  selection  of  seed,  bv  earlv 


COL. 

K  A  X  S. 

L  ^  T                     OF     f3 

"1    Til     /l^'^'/ 

W.VA/              /^^^l 

^'-%^^ 

^■EAr 

0  K  L  A . 

J-—- <ij'  ''^•7    '"     \  r~^ 

-^:f^^^^ ^\     / 

^5^ 

/^^^ 

^^^^^^vP^^^STlTT^ 

^  s.  c.    V^ 

^I£^: 

^^5^?^ 

^^M?^^^v^    \ 

G    A^\X 

|f^ 

MW% 

^m^^I^*^ 

__/ 

LV 

■WJ^^ 

mll^^^ 

"Sv 

\i\\^5^ 

>fla\ 

H  \kf 

G       U      L       F             0 

F     \    0\ 

VJ^18« 

M      E       X       I        C 

0    \J 

Fig.  iSi.    Map  showing  Distrihltion  of  the  Cotton-Boll 
Weevil  in  1913 

planting,  by  a  free  use  of  fertilizers  containing  phosphoric 
acid,  and  by  frequent  plowing,  they  can  mature  a  crop  about 
thirty  days  earlier  than  they  usually  do.  In  this  way  a  good 
crop  can  be  harvested  before  the  weevils  are  ready  to  be 
most  destructive. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FARM  CROPS 

Even'  crop  of  the  farm  has  been  changed  and  improved 
in  many  ways  since  its  forefathers  were  wild  plants.  Those 
plants  that  best  serve  the  needs  of  the  farmer  and  of  farm 
animals  have  undergone  the  most  changes  and  have  received 
also  the  greatest  care  and  attention  in  their  production  and 
improvement. 

While  we  have  many  different  kinds  of  farm  crops,  the 
cultivated  soil  of  the  world  is  occupied  by  a  ver}-  few.  In 
our  country  the  crop  that  is  most  valuable  and  that  occupies 
the  greatest  land  area  is  generally  known  as  the  ^rass  crop. 
Included  in  the  general  term  "  grass  crop  "  are  the  grasses 
and  clovers  that  are  used  for  pasturage  as  well  as  for  hay. 
Xext  to  grass  in  value  come  the  great  cereal,  corn,  and  the 
most  important  fiber  crop,  cotton,  closely  followed  by  the 
great  bread  crop,  wheat.  Oats  rank  fifth  in  value,  potatoes 
sixth,  and  tobacco  seventh.    (These  figures  are  for  191 3.) 

Success  in  growing  any  crop  is  largely  due  to  the  suit- 
ableness of  soil  and  climate  to  that  crop.  When  the  planter 
selects  both  the  most  suitable  soil  and  the  most  suitable 
climate  for  each  crop,  he  gets  not  only  the  most  bountiful 
yield  from  the  crop  but,  in  addition,  he  gets  the  most  desir- 
able quality  of  product.  A  little  careful  obser\-ation  and  study 
soon  teach  what  kinds  of  soil  produce  crops  of  the  highest 
excellence.  This  learned,  the  planter  is  able  to  grow  in  each 
field  the  several  crops  best  adapted  to  that  special  type  of  soil. 

178 


FARM  CROPS 


179 


Thus  we  have  tobacco  soils,  trucking  soils,  wheat  and  corn 
soils.  Dairying  can  be  most  profitably  followed  in  sections 
where  crops  like  cowpeas,  clover,  alfalfa,  and  corn  are  pecul- 
iarly at  home.  Xo  one  should  try  to  grow  a  new  crop  in 
his  section  until  he  has  found  out  whether  the  crop  which 
he  wants  to  grow  is  adapted  to  his  soil  and  his  climate. 


Fig.  1S2.    Alfalfa  in  the  Stack 
This  is  the  second  cutting  of  the  season 


The  figures  below  give  the  average  amount  of  money 
made  annually  an  acre  on  our  chief  crops  : 

Flowers  and  plants,  S1911;  nursery  products,  $261; 
onions,  Si 40;  sugar  cane,  S55  ;  small  fruits,  Si  10;  hops, 
$175  ;  vegetables,  S78  ;  tobacco,  $80;  sweet  potatoes,  S55  ; 
hemp.  S53  ;  potatoes,  S78  ;  sugar  beets,  S54  ;  sorghum  cane, 
S22  ;  cotton,  S22  ;  orchard  fruits.  Si  10;  peanuts,  S21;  fla.x- 
seed,  S14  ;  cereals,  S14  ;  hay  and  forage,  Si  i  ;  castor  beans, 
$6  (United  States  Census  Report). 


l8o  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

SECTION  XXXV.     COTTON 

Although  cotton  was  cultivated  on  the  Eastern  continent 
before  America  was  discovered,  this  crop  owes  its  present 
kingly  place  in  the  business  world  to  the  zeal  and  intelli- 
gence of  its  American  growers.  So  great  an  influence  does 
it  wield  in  modern  industrial  life  that  it  is  often  called  King 
Cotton.  Thousands  upon  thousands  of  people  scan  the  news- 
papers each  day  to  see  what  price  its  staple  is  bringing.  From 
its  bount}'  a  vast  army  of  toilers,  who  plant  its  seed,  who  pick 
its  bolls,  who  gin  its  staple,  who  spin  and  weave  its  lint,  who 
grind  its  seed,  who  refine  its  oil,  draw  daily  bread.  Does  not 
its  proper  production  desen-e  the  best  thought  that  can  be 
given  it.? 

In  the  cotton  belt  almost  any  well-drained  soil  will  produce 
cotton.  The  following  kinds  of  soil  are  admirably  suited  to 
this  plant :  red  and  gray  loams  with  good  clay  subsoil ;  sandy 
soils  over  clay  and  sandstone  and  limestone ;  rich,  well- 
drained  bottom-lands.  The  safest  soils  are  medium  loams. 
Cotton  land  must  always  be  well  drained. 

Cotton  was  originally  a  tropical  plant,  but,  strange  to 
say,  it  seems  to  thrive  best  in  temperate  zones.  The  cotton 
plant  does  best,  according  to  Newman,  in  climates  which 
have  (I)  six  months  of  freedom  from  frost;  (2)  a  moderate, 
well-distributed  rainfall  during  the  plant's  growing  period ; 
and  (3)  abundant  sunshine  and  little  rain  during  the  plant's 
maturing  period. 

In  America  the  Southern  states  from  \'irginia  to  Texas 
have  these  climatic  qualities,  and  it  is  in  these  states  that  the 
cotton  industn,"  has  been  developed  until  it  is  one  of  the  giant 
industries  of  the  world.  This  development  has  been  very 
rapid.    As  late  as  1736  the  cotton  plant  was  grown  as  an 


•■  "^  ^  -  <? 

i  1 1 1 1  i  l] 


'  M 1 1 1 1  i  n  i  1 1 1 1 H 1 1 1 1 1 1  riTiTiTiTiTiTifi  I  iTiTiTiTiT  MMifi^i'i'iYi'riTiti 


iSi 


I82 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


ornamental  flowering  plant  in  many  front  yards;  in  191 1, 
16,250,276  bales  of  cotton  were  grown  in  the  South,  In 
recent  years  the  soil  and  climate  of  lower  California  and  parts 
of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  have  been  found  well  adapted 
to  cotton. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  cotton.  Two  types  are 
mainlv  gro\\Ti  bv  the  practical  American  farmer.    These  are 


Fig.  184.    Cotton  in  the  Growing  Sea.son 


the  short-stapled,  upland  variet)^  most  commonly  grown  in 
all  the  Southern  states,  and  the  beautiful,  long-stapled,  black- 
seeded  sea-island  t}-pe  that  grows  upon  the  islands  and  a 
portion  of  the  mainland  of  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and 
Florida.  The  air  of  the  coast  seems  necessar}-  for  the  pro- 
duction of  this  latter  variet)'.  The  seeds  of  the  sea-island 
cotton  are  small,  smooth,  and  black.  They  are  so  smooth 
and  stick  so  loosely  to  the  lint  that  they  are  separated  from 
it  by  roller-gins  instead  of  by  saw-gins.  When  these  seeds 
are  planted  away  from  the  soil  and  air  of  their  ocean  home, 
the  plant  does  not  thrive. 


FARM  CROPS  183 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  and  are  still  being  made 
to  increase  the  length  of  the  staple  of  the  upland  types.  The 
methods  used  are  as  follows  :  selection  of  seed  having  a  long 
fiber  ;  special  cultivation  and  fertilization  ;  crossing  the  short- 
stapled  cotton  on  the  long-stapled  cotton.  This  last  process, 
as  already  explained,  is  called  hybridizing.  Many  of  these 
attempts  have  succeeded,  and  there  are  now  a  large  number 
of  varieties  which  excel  the  older  varieties  in  profitable  yield. 
The  new  \arieties  are  each  \ear  being  more  widely  grown. 


Fig.  1S5.    CoTTu-N  ready  h\iR  I'kkixg 

Every  farmer  should  study  the  new  types  and  select  the 
one  that  will  best  suit  his  land.  The  new  types  ha\'e  been 
developed  under  the  best  tillage.  Therefore  if  a  farmer  would 
keep  the  new  type  as  good  as  it  was  when  he  began  to 
grow  it,  he  must  give  it  the  same  good  tillage,  and  practice 
seed-selection. 

The  cotton  plant  is  nourished  by  a  tap-root  that  w  ill  seek 
food  as  deeply  as  loose  earth  will  permit  the  root  to  penetrate  ; 
hence,  in  preparing  land  for  this  crop  the  first  plowing  should 
be  done  at  least  with  a  two-horse  plow  and  should  be  deep 
and  thorough.  This  deep  plowing  not  only  allows  the  tap-root 
to  penetrate,  but  it  also  admits  a  circulation  of  air. 


1 84  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

On  some  cotton  farms  it  is  the  practice  to  break  the  land 
in  winter  or  early  spring  and  then  let  it  lie  naked  until 
planting-time.  This  is  not  a  good  practice.  The  winter 
rains  wash  more  plant  food  out  of  unprotected  soil  than  a 
single  crop  would  use.  It  would  be  better,  in  the  late  sum- 
mer or  fall,  to  plant  crimson  clover  or  some  other  protective 
and  enriching  crop  on  land  that  is  to  be  planted  in  cotton 
in  the  spring.  This  crop,  in  addition  to  keeping  the  land 
from  being  injuriously  washed,  would  greatly  help  the  coming 
cotton  crop  by  leaving  the  soil  full  of  vegetable  matter. 

In  preparing  for  cotton-planting,  first  disk  the  land  thor- 
oughh",  then  break  with  a  hea\y  plow  and  harrow  until  a  fine 
and  mellow  seed-bed  is  formed.  Do  not  spare  the  harrow  at 
this  time.  It  destroys  many  a  weed  that,  if  allowed  to  grow, 
would  have  to  be  cut  by  costly  hoeing.  Thorough  work  before 
planting  saves  much  expensive  work  in  the  later  days  of  the 
crop.  Moreover,  no  man  can  afford  to  allow  his  plant  food 
and  moisture  to  go  to  nourish  weeds,  even  for  a  short  time. 

The  rows  should  be  from  three  to  four  feet  apart.  The 
width  depends  upon  the  richness  of  the  soil.  On  rich  land  the 
rows  should  be  at  least  four  feet  apart.  This  width  allows 
the  luxuriant  plant  to  branch  and  fruit  well.  On  poorer  lands 
the  distance  of  the  rows  should  not  be  so  great.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  seed  in  the  row  is  of  course  most  cheaply 
done  by  the  planter.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  not  to  ridge  the 
land  for  the  seed.  Flat  culture  saves  moisture  and  often  pre- 
vents damage  to  the  roots.  In  some  sections,  however,  where 
the  land  is  flat  and  full  of  water,  ridging  seems  necessar}-  if 
the  land  cannot  be  drained. 

The  cheapest  way  of  cultivating  a  crop  is  to  prevent  grass 
and  weeds  from  rooting,  not  to  wait  to  destroy  them  after 
thev  are  well   rooted.     To   do  this,   it  is  well  to  run   the 


i8i 


1 86  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

two-horse  smoothing-harrow  over  the  land,  across  the  rows,  a 
few  days  after  the  young  plants  are  up.  Repeat  the  harrow- 
ing in  six  or  eight  days.  In  addition  to  destroying  the  young 
grass  and  weeds,  this  harrowing  also  removes  many  of  the 
young  cotton  plants  and  thereby  saves  much  hoeing  at 
"  chopping-out "  time.  When  the  plants  are  about  two 
inches  high  they  are  "  chopped  out "  to  secure  an  evenly 
distributed  stand.  It  has  been  the  custom  to  leave  two  stalks 
to  a  hill,  but  many  growers  are  now  leaving  only  one. 

The  number  of  times  the  crop  has  to  be  worked  depends 
on  the  soil  and  the  season.  If  the  soil  is  dr)^  and  porous, 
cultivate  as  often  as  possible,  especially  after  each  rain.  Never 
allow  a  crust  to  form  after  a  rain  ;  the  roots  of  plants  must  have 
air.  Cultivation  after  each  rain  forms  a  dr)-  mulch  on  the  top 
of  the  soil  and  thus  prevents  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture. 

If  the  fiber  (the  lint)  only  is  removed  from  the  land  on 
which  cotton  is  grown,  cotton  is  the  least  exhaustive  of  the 
great  crops  grown  in  the  United  States.  According  to  some 
recent  experiments  an  average  crop  of  cotton  removes  in  the 
lint  only  2.75  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
lime,  and  magnesia  per  acre,  while  a  crop  of  ten  bushels  of 
wheat  per  acre  removes  32.36  pounds  of  the  same  elements 
of  plant  food.  Inasmuch  as  this  crop  takes  so  little  plant  food 
from  the  soil,  the  cotton-farmer  has  no  excuse  for  allowing 
his  land  to  decrease  in  productiveness.  Two  things  will  keep 
his  land  in  bounteous  harvest  condition  :  first,  let  him  return 
the  seeds  in  some  form  to  the  land,  or,  what  is  better,  feed  the 
ground  seeds  to  cattle,  make  a  profit  from  the  cattle,  and  re- 
turn manure  to  the  land  in  place  of  the  seeds  ;  second,  at  the 
last  working,  let  him  sow  some  crop  like  crimson  clover  or 
rye  in  the  cotton  rows  to  protect  the  soil  during  the  winter 
and  to  leave  humus  in  the  ground  for  the  spring. 


FARM  CROPS 


187 


The  stable  manure,  if  that  is  used,  should  be  broadcasted  over 
the  fields  at  the  rate  of  six  to  ten  tons  an  acre.  If  commercial 
fertilisers  are  used,  it  may  be  best  to  make  two  applications. 
To  give  the  young  plants  a  good  start,  apply  a  portion  of 
the  fertilizer  in  the  drill  just  before  planting.  Then  when 
the  first  blooms  appear,  put  the  remainder  of  the  fertilizer  in 
drills  near  the  plants  but  not  too  close.  [Many  good  cotton- 
growers,  however,  apply  all  the  fertilizer  at  one  time. 


Fig.  187.   Weighing  a  Day's  Picking  uf  Cotton 

Relation  of  Stock  to  the  Cotton  Crop.  On  many  farms 
much  of  the  money  for  which  the  cotton  is  sold  in  the  fall 
has  to  go  to  pay  for  the  commercial  fertilizer  used  in  growing 
the  crop.  Should  not  this  fact  suggest  efforts  to  raise  just  as 
good  crops  without  ha\-ing  to  buy  so  much  fertilizer  .^  Is  there 
any  way  by  which  this  can  be  done  t  The  following  sugges- 
tions may  be  helpful.  Raise  enough  stock  to  use  all  the  cotton 
seed  sjo\\-n  on  the  farm.  To  go  with  the  food  made  from  the 
cotton  seed,  grow  on  the  farm  pea-vine  hay,  clover,  alfalfa. 


i88 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


and  other  such  nitrogen-gathering  crops.   This  can  be  done 
at  small  cost.    What  will  be  the  result .-' 

First,  to  say  nothing  of  the  money  made  from  the  cattle, 
the  large  quantity  of  stable  manure  saved  will  largely  reduce 
the  amount  of  commercial  fertilizer  needed.  The  cotton- 
farmer  cannot  afford  to  neglect  cattle-raising.  The  cattle  sec- 
tions of  the  countr}'  are  likely  to  make  the  greatest  progress 
in  agriculture,  because  they  have  manure  always  on  hand. 


Fig.  iSS.    Modi: 


N  Bales 


Second,  the  nitrogen-gathering  crops,  while  helping  to  feed 
the  stock,  also  reduce  the  fertilizer  bills  by  supplying  one  of 
the  costly  elements  of  the  fertilizer.  The  ordinar)-  cotton  fer- 
tilizer consists  principally  of  nitrogen,  of  potash,  and  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  Of  these  three,  by  far  the  most  costly  is  nitrogen. 
Now  peas,  beans,  clover,  and  peanuts  will  leave  enough  nitro- 
gen in  the  soil  for  cotton,  so  that  if  they  are  raised,  it  is 
necessar}-  to  buy  only  phosphoric  acid  and  sometimes  potash. 


FARM  CROPS 


189 


SECTION"  XXXVI.    TOBACCO 

The  tobacco  plant  connects  Indian  agriculture  with  our 
own.  It  has  always  been  a  source  of  great  profit  to  our 
people.  In  the  early  colonial  days  tobacco  v\"as  almost  the 
onlv  money  crop.  Many  rich  men  came  to  America  in  those 
days  merely  to  raise  tobacco. 

Although  tobacco  will  grow  in  almost 
any  climate,  the  leaves,  which,  as  most  of 
you  know,  are  the  salable  part  of  the 
plant,  get  their  desirable  or  undesirable 
qualities  ver)-  largely  from  the  soil  and 
from  the  climate  in  which  they  grow. 

The  soil  in  which  tobacco  thrives  best 
is  one  w  hich  has  the  following  qualities  : 
dr\ness,  warmth,  richness,  depth,  and 
sandiness. 

Commercial  fertilizers  also  are  almost 
a  necessity  ;  for,  as  tobacco  land  is  limited 
in  area,  the  same  land  must  be  often 
planted  in  tobacco.  Hence  even  a  fresh, 
rich  soil  that  did  not  at  first  require  ferti- 
lizing soon  becomes  exhausted,  and,  after 
the  land  has  been  robbed  of  its  plant  food 
by  crop  after  crop  of  tobacco,  frequent  application  of  fertili- 
zers and  other  manures  becomes  necessan.'.  However,  even 
tobacco  growers  should  rotate  their  crops  as  much  as  possible. 

Deep  plow ing  —  from  nine  to  thirteen  inches  —  is  also 
a  necessity-  in  preparing  the  land,  for  tobacco  roots  go  deep 
into  the  soil.  After  this  deep  plowing,  harrow  until  the  soil 
is  thoroughly  pulverized  and  is  as  fine  and  mellow  as  that 
of  the  flower-grarden. 


Fig.  1S9.    A  Le-\f 
OF  Tobacco 


I90  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Unlike  most  other  farm  crops  the  tobacco  plant  must  be 
started  first  in  a  seed-bed.  To  prepare  a  tobacco  bed  the 
almost  universal  custom  has  been  to  proceed  as  follows. 
Carefully  select  a  protected  spot.  Over  this  spot  pile  brush- 
wood and  then  burn  it.  The  soil  will  be  left  dr}-,  and  all  the 
weed  seeds  will  be  killed.  The  bed  is  then  carefully  raked 
and  smoothed  and  planted.   Some  farmers  are  now  preparing 


Fig.  190.   A  Promising  Crup  of  Tobacco 

their  beds  without  burning.  A  tablespoonful  of  seed  will  sow 
a  patch  twent\-five  feet  square.  A  cheap  cloth  cover  is  put 
over  the  bed.  If  the  seeds  come  up  well,  a  patch  of  this  size 
ought  to  furnish  transplants  for  five  or  six  acres.  In  sowing, 
it  is  not  wise  to  cover  the  seed  deeply.  A  light  raking  in  or 
an  even  rolling  of  the  ground  is  all  that  is  needed. 

The   time   required   for   sprouting   is   from  two  to  three 
weeks.     The  plants  ought  to  be  ready  for  transplanting  in 


FARM  CROPS 


191 


from  four  to  six  weeks.    \\'eeds  and  grass  should  of  course 

be  kept  out  of  the  seed-bed. 

The  plants,  when  ready,  are  transplanted  in  very  much 

the  same  way  as  cabbages  and  tomatoes.   The  transplanting 

was  formerly  done  by  hand,  but  an  effective  machine  is  now 
widely  used.  The  rows  should  be 
from  three  to  three  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  in  the  rows 
about  two  or  three  feet  apart.  If  the 
plants  are  set  so  that  the  plow  and 


Topping  Tobacco 


cultivator  can  be  run  with  the  rows  and  also  across  the  rows, 
they  can  be  more  economically  worked.  Tobacco,  like  corn, 
requires  shallow  cultivation.  Of  course  the  plants  should  be 
worked  often  enough  to  give  clean  culture  and  to  provide 
a  soil  mulch  for  saving  moisture. 

In  tobacco  culture  it  is  necessary  to  pinch  off  the  "  buttons  " 
and  to  cut  off  the  tops  of  the  main  stalk,  else  much  nourish- 
ment that  should  go  to  the  leaves  will  be  given  to  the  seeds. 
The  suckers  must  also  be  cut  off  for  the  same  reason. 


192 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


The  proper  time  for  har\-esting  is  not  easily  fixed  ;  one 
becomes  skillful  in  this  work  only  through  experience  in  the 
field.  Briefly,  we  may  say  that  to- 
bacco is  read}'  to  be  cut  when  the 
leaves  on  being  held  up  to  the  sun 
show  a  light  or  golden  color,  when 
they  are  sticky  to  the  touch,  and 
when  they  break  easily  on  being 
bent.  Plants  that  are  overripe  are 
inferior  to  those  that  are  cut  early. 

The  operations  included  in  cutting, 
housing,  dning,  shipping,  sweating, 
and  packing  require  skill  and  practice. 

SECTION  XXXVII.    WHEAT 


\\'heat  has  been  cultivated  from 
earliest  times.  It  was  a  chief  crop 
in   Eg}'pt  and    Palestine,   and    still 


¥iG.  192.   A  Hand 


holds  its  importance  in 
the  temperate  portions 
of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
Australia,  and  America. 
This  crop  ranks  third 
in  value  in  the  United 
States.   It  grows  in  cool, 
in    temperate,    and    in 
warm  climates,  and  in 
many  kinds  of  soil.    It  does  best  in  clay  loam, 
and  worst  in  sandy  soils.    Clogged  and  water- 
soaked   land  will  not  grow  wheat  with   profit 
to  the  farmer ;    for  this  reason,  where   good 


Wheat  Heads 


FARM  CROPS 


193 


wheat-production  is  desired  the  soil  must  be  well  drained  and 
in  good  physical  condition  —  that  is,  the  soil  must  be  open, 
crumbly,  and  mellow. 

Clay  soils  that  are  hard  and  lifeless  can  be  made  valuable 
for  wheat-production  by  covering  the  surface  with  manure, 
by  good  tillage,  and  by  a  thorough  system  of  crop-rotation, 
Cowpeas  and  other  leginnes  make  a  most  valuable  crop 
to  precede  wheat,  for  in 
growing  they  add  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen  to  the 
soil,  and  their  roots  loosen 
the  root-bed,  thereby  ad- 
mitting a  free  circulation 
of  air  and  adding  humus 
to  the  soil.  Moreover, 
the  legumes  leave  the 
soil  with  its  grains  fairly 
close  packed,  and  this  is  a 
help  in  wheat  growing. 

One  may  secure  a  good 
seed-bed  after  cotton  and 
corn  as  well  as  after  cow- 
peas  and  other  legumes. 
They  are  summer-culti- 
vated crops,  and  the  clean  culture  that  has  been  given  them 
renders  the  surface  soil  mellow  and  the  undersoil  firm  and 
compact.  They  are  not  so  good,  however,  as  cowpeas,  since 
they  add  no  atmospheric  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  as  all  legu- 
minous crops  do. 

From  one  to  two  inches  is  the  most  satisfactory  depth  for 
planting  wheat.  The  largest  number  of  seeds  comes  up  when 
planted  at  this  depth.    A  mellow  soil  is  very  helpful  to  good 


Fig.  194.    Roots  ok  a  Single 
Wheat  Plant 


194 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


coming  up  and  provides  a  most  comfortable  home  for  the 
roots  of  the  plant.  A  compact  soil  below  makes  a  moist 
undersoil ;  and  this  is  desirable,  for  the  soil  water  is  needed 
to  dissolve  plant  food  and  to  carr}^  it  up  through  the  plant, 
wliere  it  is  used  in  building  tissue. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  wheat :  some  are 
bearded,   others  are  smooth  ;    some  are  winter  and  others 

are  spring  varie- 
ties. The  smooth- 
headed  varieties 
are  most  agree- 
able to  handle 
during  har\-est 
and  at  threshing- 
time.  Some  of 
the  bearded  varie- 
ties, however,  do 
so  well  in  some 
soils  and  climates 
that  it  is  desirable 
to  continue  grow- 
ing them,  though 
they  are  less  agreeable  to  handle.  No  matter  what  variety 
you  are  accustomed  to  raise,  it  may  be  improved  bv  careful 
seed-selection. 

The  seed-drill  is  the  best  implement  for  planting  wheat. 
It  distributes  the  grains  evenly  over  the  whole  field  and  leaves 
the  mellow  soil  in  a  condition  to  catch  what  snow  may  fall 
and  secure  what  protection  it  affords. 

In  many  parts  of  the  countiT,  because  not  enough  live  stock 
is  raised,  there  is  often  too  little  manure  to  applv  to  the  wheat 
land.    Where  this  is  the  case  commercial  fertilizers  must  be 


Fig.  195.    Selecting  Wheat  Seed 


t* 


#. 


'95 


196 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


used.  Since  soils  differ  greatly,  it  is  impossible  to  suggest  a 
fertilizer  adapted  to  all  soils.  The  elements  usually  lacking  in 
wheat  soils  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  The 
land  may  be  lacking  in  one  of  these  plant  foods  or  in  all ;  in 
either  case  a  maximum  crop  cannot  possibly  be  raised.  The 
section  on  manuring  the  soil  will  be  helpful  to  the  wheat-grower. 


Fig.  197.   A  BoLNTiFUL  Crop  of  Wheat 

It  should  be  remembered  always  in  buying  fertilizers  for 
wheat  that  whenever  wheat  follows  cowpeas  or  clover  or 
other  legumes  there  is  seldom  need  of  using  nitrogen  in  the 
fertilizer ;  the  tubercles  on  the  pea  or  clover  roots  will  furnish 
that.  Hence,  as  a  rule,  only  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  will 
have  to  be  purchased  as  plant  food. 

The  farmer  is  assisted  always  by  a  study  of  his  crop  and 
by  a  knowledge  of  how  it  grows.  If  he  find  the  straw  inferior 
and  short,  it  means  that  the  soil  is  deficient  in  nitrogen  ;  but 


FARM  CROPS 


197 


on  the  other  hand,  if  the  straw  be  luxuriant  and  the  heads 
small  and  poorly  filled,  he  may  be  sure  that  his  soil  contains 
too  little  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

EXERCISE 

Let  the  pupils  secure  several  heads  of  wheat  and  thresh  each  sepa- 
rately by  hand.  The  grains  should  then  be  counted  and  their  plumpness 
and  size  observed.  The  practical  importance  of  this  is  obvious,  for  the 
larger  the  heads  and  the  greater  the  number 
of  grains,  the  larger  the  yield  per  acre.  Let 
them  plant  some  of  the  large  and  some  of  the 
small  grains.  A  single  test  of  this  kind  will 
show  the  importance  of  careful  seed-selection. 


Fig.  19S         ^   /       1       1 
A  Widely  Grown  Crop  ' 


SECTION   XXXVin.    CORN 

When  the  white  man  came   to  this 

country-   he   found    the    Indians   using 

corn  ;  for  this  reason,  in  addition  to  its 

name   viaize,  it  is  called  Indian  co?vi. 

Before  that  time  the  civilized  world  did  not  know 

that  there  was  such  a  crop.    The  increase  in  the 

yield  and  the  extension  of  the  acres  planted  in  this 

strictl}'  American  crop  have  kept  pace  with  the 


198  AGRICULTrRE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

rapid  and  wonderful  growth  of  our  countn-.  Corn  is  king  of  the 
cereals  and  the  most  important  crop  of  American  agriculture. 
It  grows  in  almost  ever\'  section  of  America.  There  is  hardly 
any  limit  to  the  uses  to  which  its  grain  and  its  stalks  are  now 
put.  Animals  of  many  kinds  are  fed  on  rations  into  which  it 
enters.  Its  grains  in  some  form  furnish  food  to  more  people 
than  does  any  other  crop  except  possibly  rice.  Its  stalk  and  its 
cob  are  manufactured  into  many  different  and  useful  articles. 

A  soil  rich  in  either  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter, 
loose,  warm,  and  moist  but  not  wet,  will  produce  a  better 
crop  of  corn  than  any  other.  Corn  soil  should  always  be 
well  tilled  and  cultiv^ated. 

The  proper  time  to  begin  the  cultivation  of  corn  is  before 
it  is  planted.  Plow  well.  A  shallow,  worn-out  soil  should  not 
be  used  for  corn,  but  for  cowpeas  or  r}-e.  After  thorough  plow- 
ing, the  harrow  —  either  the  disk  or  spring-tooth  —  should  be 
used  to  destroy  all  clods  and  leave  the  surface  mellow  and  fine. 
The  best  results  will  be  obtained  by  turning  under  a  clover 
sod  that  has  been  manured  from  the  savings  of  the  barnyard. 

When  manure  is  not  available,  commercial  fertilizers  will 
often  prove  profitable  on  poor  lands.  Careful  trials  will  best  de- 
termine how  much  fertilizer  to  an  acre  is  necessar}-,  and  what 
kinds  are  to  be  used.  A  little  study  and  experimenting  on  the 
farmer's  part  will  soon  enable  him  to  find  out  both  the  kind 
and  the  amount  of  fertilizer  that  is  best  suited  to  his  land. 

The  seed  for  this  crop  should  be  selected  according  to  the 
plan  suggested  in  Section  XIX. 

The  most  economical  method  of  planting  is  by  means  of 
the  horse  planter,  which,  according  to  its  adjustment,  plants 
regularly  in  hills  or  in  drills,  A  few  days  after  planting,  the 
cornfield  should  be  harrowed  with  a  fine-tooth  harrow  to 
loosen  the  top  soil  and  to  kill  the  grass  and  the  weed  seeds 


199 


200 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


that  are  germinating  at  the  surface.  \\'hen  the  com  plants 
are  from  a  half  inch  to  an  inch  high,  the  harrow  may  again  be 
used.  A  little  work  before  the  weeds  sprout  will  save  many  days 
of  labor  during  the  rest  of  the  season,  and  increase  the  vield. 


Fig.  200.    The  Difference  is  due  to  Tillage 


Corn  is  a  crop  that  needs  constant  cultivation,  and  during 
the  growing  season  the  soil  should  be  stirred  at  least  four 
times.    This  cultivation  is  for  three  reasons  : 

I .  To  destroy  weeds  that  would  take  plant  food  and  water. 


FARM  CROPS 


20 1 


2.  To  provide  a  mulch  of  diy  soil  so  as  to  prevent  the 
evaporation  of  moisture.  The  action  of  this  mulch  has  already 
been  explained. 

3.  Because  "tillage  is  manure."  Constant  stirring  of  the 
soil  allows  the  air  to  circulate  in  it,  provides  a  more  effec- 
tive mulch,  and  helps  to  change  unavailable  plant  food  into 
the  form  that  plants  use. 

Deep  culture  of  corn  is  not  advisable. 
The  roots  in  their  early  stages  of  growth 
are  shallow  feeders  and  spread  widely 
only  a  few  inches  below  the  surface. 
The  cultivation  that  destroys  or  disturbs 
the  roots  injures  the  plants  and  lessens 
the  yield.  We  cultivate  because  of  the 
three  reasons  given  above,  and  not  to 
stir  the  soil  about  the  roots  or  to  loosen 
it  there. 

In  many  parts  of  the  countiy  the 
cornstalks  are  left  standing  in  the  fields 
or  are  burned.  This  is  a  great  mistake, 
for  the  stalks  are  worth  a  good  deal 
for  feeding  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 
These  stalks  may  always  be  saved  by 
the  use  of  the  busker  and  shredder. 
Corn  after  being  matured  and  cut  can  be  put  in  shocks 
and  left  thus  until  dry  enough  to  run  through  the  busker 
and  shredder.  This  machine  separates  the  corn  from  the 
stalk  and  husks  it.  At  the  same  time  it  shreds  tops,  leaves, 
and  butts  into  a  food  that  is  both  nutritious  and  palatable  to 
stock.  For  the  amount  that  animals  will  eat,  almost  as  much 
feeding  value  is  obtained  from  com  stover  treated  in  this 
way  as  from  timoth}-  hay.    The  practice  of  not  using  the 


Fig.  201 


202  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

stalks  is  wasteful  and  is  fast  being  abandoned.  The  only 
reason  that  so  much  good  food  is  being  left  to  decay  in  the 
field  is  because  so  many  people  have  not  fully  learned  the 
feeding  value  of  the  stover. 

EXERCISE 

To  show  the  effect  of  cultivation  on  the  yield  of  corn,  let  the  pupils 
lay  off  five  plats  in  some  convenient  field.  Each  plat  need  consist  of 
only  two  rows  about  twenty  feet  long.    Treat  each  plat  as  follows  : 

Plat  I.   No  cultivation  :   let  weeds  grow. 

Plat  2.   Mulch  with  straw. 

Plat  3.  Shallow  cultivation  :  not  deeper  than  two  inches  and  at  least 
five  times  during  the  growing  season. 

Plat  4.  Deep  cultivation :  at  least  four  inches  deep,  so  as  to  injure 
and  tear  out  some  of  the  roots  (this  is  a  common  method). 

Plat  5.  Root-pruning:  ten  inches  from  the  stalk  and  six  inches 
deep,  prune  the  roots  with  a  long  knife.  Cultivate  five  times  during 
the  season. 

Observe  plats  during  the  summer,  and  at  husking-time  note  results. 

SECTION   XXXIX.    PEANUTS 

This  plant  is  rich  in  names,  being  known  locally  as  "ground 
pea,"  "goober,"  "  earthnut,"  and  "  pindar,"  as  well  as  gen- 
erally by  the  name  of  "  peanut."  The  peanut  is  a  true 
legume,  and,  like  other  legumes,  bears  nitrogen-gathering 
tubercles  upon  its  roots.  The  fruit  is  not  a  real  nut  but  rather 
a  kind  of  pea  or  bean,  and  develops  from  the  blossom.  After 
the  fall  of  the  blossom  the  "spike,"  or  flower-stalk,  pushes 
its  way  into  the  ground,  where  the  nut  develops.  If  unable 
to  penetrate  the  soil  the  nut  dies. 

In  the  United  States,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Virginia, 
and  Tennessee  have  the  most  favorable  climates  for  peanut 
culture.    Suitable  climate  and  soil,  however,  may  be  found 


FARM   CROPS 


20:5 


from  New  Jersey  to  the  :\Iississippi  valley.  A  high,  porous, 
sandy  loam  is  the  most  suitable.  Stiffer  soils,  which  may  in 
some  cases  yield  larger  crops  than  the  loams,  are  yet  not  so 
profitable,  for  stiff  soils  injure  the  color  of  the  nut.  Lime 
is  a  necessity  and  must  be  supplied  if  the  soil  is  deficient. 
Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  needed. 

Greater  care  than  is  usually  bestowed  should  be  given  to 
the  selection  of  the  peanut  seed.  In  addition  to  following 
the  principles  given  in 
Section  XV I II ,  all  musty, 
defective  seeds  must  be 
avoided  and  all  frosted 
kernels  must  be  rejected. 
Before  it  dries,  the  pea- 
nut seed  is  easily  injured 
by  frost.  The  slightest 
frost  on  the  vines,  either 
before  or  after  the  plants 
are  dug,  does  much  harm 
to  the  tender  seed. 

In  growing  peanuts, 
thorough  preparation  of 
the  soil  is  much   better 

than  later  cultivation.  Destroy  the  crop  of  young  weeds, 
but  do  not  disturb  the  peanut  crop  by  late  cultivation.  Har- 
vest before  frost,  and  shock  high  to  keep  the  vines  from 
the  ground. 

The  average  yield  of  peanuts  in  the  United  States  is 
twenty-two  bushels  an  acre.  In  Tennessee  the  yield  is 
twent)'-nine  bushels  an  acre,  and  in  North  Carolina  and 
Vire:inia  it  reaches  thirtv  bushels  an  acre. 


Fi< 


A    I'EA.NLT    I'LAM" 


204 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


SECTION   XL.    SWEET  POTATOES 

The  roots  of  sweet  potatoes  are  put  on  the  market  in 
various  forms.  Aside  from  the  form  in  which  they  are 
ordinarily  sold,  some  potatoes  are  dried  and  then  ground 
into  flour,  some  are  canned,  some  are  used  to  make  starch, 
some   furnish    a    kind   of   sugar  called   glucose,   and   some 

are   even  used  to  make 
alcohol. 

The  fact  that  there 
are  over  eight}-  varieties 
of  potatoes  shows  the 
popularit}-  of  the  plant. 
X'ow  it  is  evident  that 
all  of  these  varieties  can- 
not be  equally  desirable. 
Hence  the  wise  grower 
will  select  his  varieties 
with  prudent  forethought. 
He     should     studv     his 


Fig.  203.    Sweet  Potatoes 


market,  his  soil,  and  his  seed  (see  Section  XX'HI). 

Four  months  of  mild  weather,  months  free  from  frost  and 
cold  winds,  are  necessar)-  for  the  growing  of  sweet  potatoes. 
In  a  mild  climate  almost  any  loose,  well-drained  soil  will  pro- 
duce them.  A  light,  sandy  loam,  however,  gives  a  cleaner 
potato  and  one,  therefore,  that  sells  better. 

The  sweet  potato  draws  potash,  nitrogen,  and  phosphoric 
acid  from  the  soil,  but  in  applying  these  as  fertilizers  the 
grower  must  study  and  know  his  own  soil.  If  he  does  not 
he  may  waste  both  money  and  plant  food  by  the  addition  of 
elements  already  present  in  sufficient  quantit}'  in  the  soil. 
The  only  way  to  come  to  reliable  conclusions  as  to  the  needs 


I'ARM   CROrS  205 

of  the  soil  is  to  try  two  or  three  different  kinds  of  fertilizers 
on  plats  of  the  same  soil,  during  the  same  season,  and  notice 
the  resulting  crop  of  potatoes. 

Sweet  potatoes  will  do  well  after  almost  any  of  the  usual 
field  crops.  This  caution,  however,  should  be  borne  in  mind. 
Potatoes  should  not  follow  a  sod.  This  is  because  sods  are  often 
thick  with  cutworms,  one  of  the  serious  enemies  of  the  potato. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  ground  must  be  kept  clean 
bv  thorough  cultivation  until  the  vines  take  full  possession  of 
the  field. 

In  harvesting,  extreme  care  should  be  used  to  avoid  cut- 
ting and  bruising  the  potato,  since  bruises  are  as  dangerous 
to  a  sweet  potato  as  to  an  apple,  and  render  decay  almost  a 
certainty.    Lay  aside  all  bruised  potatoes  for  immediate  use. 

For  shipment  the  potatoes  should  be  graded  and  packed 
with  care.  An  extra  outlay  of  fifty  cents  a  barrel  often  brings- 
a  return  of  a  dollar  a  barrel  in  the  market.  One  fact  often 
neglected  by  Southern  growers  who  raise  potatoes  for  a 
Northern  market  is  that  the  Northern  markets  demand  a 
potato  that  will  cook  dr\-  and  mealy,  and  that  they  will  not 
accept  the  juicy,  sugary  potato  so  popular  in  the  South. 

The  storage  of  sweet  potatoes  presents  difficulties  owing  to 
their  great  tendency  to  decay  under  the  influence  of  the  ever- 
present  fungi  and  bacteria.  This  tendency  can  be  met  by 
preventing  bruises  and  by  keeping  the  bin  free  from  rotting  po- 
tatoes. The  potatoes  should  be  cleaned,  and  after  the  moisture 
has  been  dried  off  they  should  be  stored  in  a  dry,  warm  place. 

The  sweet-potato  vine  makes  a  fair  quality  of  hay  and 
with  proper  precaution  may  be  used  for  ensilage.  Small, 
defective,  unsalable  potatoes  are  rich  in  sugar  and  starch 
and  are  therefore  good  stock  food.  Since  they  contain  so 
much  water  they  must  be  used  only  as  an  aid  to  other  diet. 


206 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


SECTION  XLI.    WHITE,  OR  IRISH,  POTATOES 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  and  potatoes  are  the  two  greatest 
gifts  in  the  way  of  food  that  America  has  bestowed  on  the 
other  nations.  Since  their  adoption  in  the  sixteenth  centur)'as 
a  new  food  from  recently  discovered  America,  white  potatoes 
have  become  one  of  the  world's  most  important  crops. 


i-iG.  204.    Cultivating  and  Ridging  roTATuES 

No  grower  will  harvest  large  crops  of  potatoes  unless  he 
chooses  soil  that  suits  the  plant,  selects  his  seed  carefully, 
cultivates  thoroughly,  feeds  his  land  sufficiently,  and  sprays 
regularly. 

The  soil  should  be  free  from  potato  scab.  This  disease 
remains  in  land  for  several  years.  Hence  if  land  is  known 
to  have  any  form  of  scab  in  it,  do  not  plant  potatoes  in 
such  land.  Select  for  this  crop  a  deep  and  moderately  light, 
sandy  loam  which  has  an  open  subsoil  and  which  is  rich  in 
humus.    The  soil  must  be  light  enough  for  the  potatoes,  or 


FARM  CROPS  207 

tubers,  to  enlarge  easily  and  dn.-  enough  to  prevent  rot  or 
blight  or  other  diseases.  Potato  soil  should  be  so  close- 
grained  that  it  will  hold  moisture  during  a  dr}-  spell  and  yet 
so  well-drained  that  the  tubers  will  not  be  hurt  by  too  much 
moisture  in  wet  weather. 

If  the  land  selected  for  potatoes  is  lacking  in  humus,  fine 
compost  or  well-rotted  manure  will  greatly  increase  the  yield. 
However,  it  should  be  remembered  that  green  manure  makes 
a  good  home  for  the  growth  of  scab  germs.  Hence  it  is  safest 
to  apply  this  sort  of  manure  in  the  fall,  or,  better  still,  use  a 
hea\T  dressing  of  manure  on  the  crop  which  the  potatoes  are 
to  follow.  Leguminous  crops  supply  both  humus  and  nitro- 
gen and,  at  the  same  time,  improve  the  subsoil.  Therefore 
such  crops  are  excellent  to  go  immediately  before  potatoes. 
If  land  is  well  supplied  with  humus,  commercial  fertilizers 
are  perhaps  safer  than  manure,  for  when  these  fertilizers  are 
used  the  amount  of  plant  food  is  more  easily  regulated.  Select 
a  fertilizer  that  is  rich  in  potash.  For  gardens  unleached  wood 
ashes  make  a  valuable  fertilizer  because  they  supply  potash. 
Early  potatoes  need  more  fertilization  than  do  late  ones. 
\\'hile  potatoes  do  best  on  rich  land,  they  should  not  be  over- 
fed, for  a  too  hea\y  growth  of  foliage  is  likely  to  cause  blight. 

Be  careful  to  select  seed  from  sound  potatoes  which  are 
entirely  free  from  scab.  Get  the  kinds  that  thrive  best  in  the 
section  in  which  they  are  to  be  planted  and  which  suit  best 
the  markets  in  which  they  are  to  be  sold.  Seed  potatoes 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  so  that  they  will  not  sprout 
before  planting-time.  As  a  rule  consumers  prefer  a  smooth, 
regularly  shaped,  shallow-eyed  white  or  flesh-colored  potato 
which  is  mealy  when  cooked.  Therefore,  select  seed  tubers 
with  these  qualities.  It  seems  proved  that  when  whole  pota- 
toes are  used  for  seed  the  vield  is  larger  than  when  sliced 


208 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


potatoes  are  planted.  It  is  of  course  too  costly  to  plant  whole 
potatoes,  but  it  is  a  good  practice  to  cause  the  plants  to  thrive 
by  planting  large  seed  pieces. 

Like  other  crops,  potatoes  need  a  thoroughly  prepared 
seed-bed  and  intelligent  cultivation.  Break  the  land  deep. 
Then  go  over  it  with  an  ordinary  harrow  until  all  clods  are 
broken  and  the  soil  is  fine  and  well  closed.    The  rows  should 


Fig.  205.    Gathering  Totatoes 

be  at  least  three  feet  from  one  another  and  the  seeds  placed 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row,  and  covered 
to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches.  A  late  crop  should  be 
planted  deeper  than  an  early  one.  Before  the  plants  come 
up  it  is  well  to  go  over  the  field  once  or  twice  with  a  harrow 
so  as  to  kill  all  weeds.  Do  not  fail  to  save  moisture  by  fre- 
quent cultivation.  After  the  plants  start  to  grow,  all  cultiva- 
tion should  be  shallow,  for  the  roots  feed  near  the  surface 


FARM  CROPS  209 

and  should  not  be  broken.  Cultivate  as  often  as  needed  to 
keep  down  weeds  and  grass  and  to  keep  the  ground  fine. 

Allow  potatoes  to  dry  thoroughly  before  they  are  stored, 
but  never  allow  them  to  remain  long  in  the  sunshine.  Never 
dig  them  in  damp  weather,  for  the  moisture  clinging  to  them 
will  cause  them  to  rot.  After  the  tubers  are  dry,  store  them 
in  barrels  or  bins  in  a  dry,  cool,  and  dark  place.  Never  allow 
them  to  freeze. 

Among  the  common  diseases  and  insect  pests  that  attack 
the  leaves  and  stems  of  potato  vines  are  early  blight,  late 
blight,  brown  rot,  the  flea-beetle,  and  the  potato  beetle,  or 
potato  bug.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  to  which  a 
small  portion  of  Paris  green  has  been  added  will  control 
both  the  diseases  and  the  pests.  The  spra}'ing  should  begin 
when  the  plants  are  five  or  six  inches  high  and  should  not 
cease  until  the  foliage  begins  to  die. 

Scab  is  a  disease  of  the  tubers.  It  ma}-  be  prevented 
(i)  by  using  seed  potatoes  that  are  free  from  scab;  (2)  by 
planting  land  in  which  there  is  no  scab  ;  and  (3)  by  soaking 
the  seed  in  formalin  (see  page  135). 

SECTION  XLII.    OATS 

The  oat  plant  belongs  to  the  grass  family.  It  is  a  hardy 
plant  and,  under  good  conditions,  a  vigorous  grower.  It 
stands  cold  and  wet  better  than  any  other  cereal  except  pos- 
sibly r)-e.  Oats  like  a  cool,  moist  climate.  In  warm  climates, 
oats  do  best  when  they  are  sowed  in  the  fall.  In  cooler 
sections,  spring  seeding  is  more  generally  practiced. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  oats.  No  one  variety 
is  best  adapted  to  all  sections,  but  many  varieties  make  fine 
crops  in  many  sections.    Any  variety  is  desirable  which  has 


2IO 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGLXXERS 


these  qualities  :  power  to  resist  disease  and  insect  enemies, 
hea\y  grains,  thin  hulls,  good  color,  and  suitabilit}-  to  local 
surroundings. 

As  oats  and  r\-e  make  a  better  yield  on  poor  land  than  any 
other  cereals,  some  farmers  usually  plant  these  crops  on  their 
poorest  lands.    However,  no  land  is  too  good  to  be  used  for 

so  valuable  a  crop  as  oats. 
Oats  require  a  great  deal  of 
moisture ;  hence  light,  sandy 
soils  are  not  so  well  adapted 
to  this  crop  as  are  the  sandy 
loams  and  fine  clay  loams 
with  their  closer  and  heavier 
texture. 

If  oats  are  to  be  planted 
in  the  spring,  the  ground 
should  be  broken  in  the  fall, 
winter,  or  early  spring  so 
that  no  delay  may  occur  at 
seeding-time.  But  to  have 
a  thoroughly  settled,  com.- 
pact  seed-bed  the  breaking 
of  the  land  should  be  done 
at  least  a  month  before  the 
seeding,  and  it  will  help  greatly  to  run  over  the  land  with  a 
disk  harrow  immediately  after  the  breaking. 

Oats  ma\-  be  planted  by  scattering  them  broadcast  or  by 
means  of  a  drill.  The  drill  is  better,  because  the  grains  are 
more  uniformly  distributed  and  the  depth  of  planting  is  better 
regfulated.  The  seeds  should  be  covered  from  one  and  a  half 
to  two  inches  deep.  In  a  ver\-  dn,'  season  three  inches  may 
not  be  too  deep.    The  amount  of  seed  needed  to  the  acre 


Fig.  zo6.    Oats 
Common  oats  at  left ;  side  oats  at  right 


FARM  CROPS 


211 


\-aries  considerably,  but  generally  the  seeding  is  from  t\vo  to 
three  bushels  an  acre.  On  poor  lands  t^vo  bushels  will  be  a 
fair  average  seeding ;  on  good  lands  as  much  as  three  bushels 
should  be  used. 

This  crop  fits  in  well,  over  wide  areas,  with  various  rota- 
tions. As  the  purpose  of  all  rotation  is  to  keep  the  soil  pro- 
ductive, oats  should  alternate  even-  few  vears  with  one  of  the 


KiG.  207.    Harvesting  Oats 

nitrogen-gathering  crops.  In  the  South,  cowpeas,  soy  beans, 
clovers,  and  vetches  may  be  used  in  this  rotation.  In  the 
North  and  West  the  clovers  mixed  with  timothy  hay  make 
a  useful  combination  for  this  purpose. 

Spring-sowed  oats,  since  they  have  a  short  growing  season, 
need  their  nitrogenous  plant  food  in  a  form  which  can  be 
quickly  used.  To  supply  this  nitrogen  a  top-dressing  of 
nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  lime  is  helpful.    The  plant 


212  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

can  gather  its  food  quickly  from  either  of  these  two.  As  fall- 
sowed  oats  have  of  course  a  longer  growing  season,  the  nitro- 
gen can  be  supplied  by  w-ell-rotted  manure,  blood,  tankage, 
or  fish-scrap.  Use  barnyard  manure  carefull}'.  Do  not  apply 
too  much  just  before  seeding,  and  use  onl}^  thoroughl}"  rotted 
manure.  It  is  alx'i'ays  desirable  to  have  a  bountiful  supph-  of 
humus  in  land  on  which  oats  are  to  be  planted. 

The  time  of  han^esting  wSi  vary  with  the  use  which  is  to 
be  made  of  the  oats.  If  the  crop  is  to  be  threshed,  the  har- 
vesting should  be  done  when  the  kernels  have  passed  out  of 
the  milk  into  the  hard  dough  state.  The  lower  leaves  of  the 
stalks  will  at  this  time  have  turned  yellow,  and  the  kernels 
\Aill  be  plump  and  full.  Do  not,  however,  wait  too  long, 
for  if  you  do  the  grain  vcil\  shatter  and  the  straw  lose  in 
feeding  A-alue. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  oats  are  to  be  ait  for  hsy  k  is 
best  to  cut  them  while  the  grains  are  still  in  the  milk  ?:.  _7 
At  this  stage  the  leaves  are  still  green  and  the  pla:::;   .,:  _ 
rich  in  protein. 

Oats  should  be  cured  quickly.  It  is  ven'  important  that 
threshed  oats  should  be  dry  before  the}^  are  stored.  Should 
thev  on  being  stored  still  contain  moisture,  the}-  will  be  likel}' 
to  heat  and  to  discolor.  Anv  discoloring  will  reduce  their 
value.  Nor  should  oats  ever  be  allowed  to  remain  long  in 
the  fields,  no  matter  how  well  they  may  seem  to  be  shocked. 
The  dew  and  the  rain  will  injure  their  value  by  discoloring 
them  more  or  less. 

Oats  are  muscle-builders  rather  than  fat-former^  H:-:?e 
they  are  a  valuable  ration  for  work  animals,  dain  .  r  ..nd 
breeding-stock. 


FARM  CROPS 
SECTION'  XLIII.    RYE 


213 


Rye  has  the  power  of  gathering  its  food  from  a  wider 
area  than  most  other  plants.  Of  course,  then,  it  is  a  fine  crop 
for  poor  land,  and  fanners  often  plant  it  only  on  worn  land. 


Vu 


:oS.     RVE    KEAUV    I(iK    CrXTING 


However,  it  is  too  good  a  cereal  to  be  treated  in  so  ungener- 
ous a  fashion.  As  a  cover-crop  for  poor  land  it  adds  much 
humus  to  the  soil  and  makes  capital  grazing. 

There  are  t^vo  t)pes  of  ne  —  the  winter  and  the  spring. 
The  winter  type  is  chiefly  grown  in  this  countr)'.    Rye  seeds 


2  14  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

should  be  bought  as  near  home  as  possible,  for  this  plant 
thrives  best  when  the  new  crop  grows  under  the  same  con- 
ditions as  the  seed  crop. 

Rye  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil  that  is  drained.  Soils 
that  are  too  sandy  for  wheat  \\'ill  generally  peld  good  crops 
of  rj-e.  Clay  soils,  however,  are  not  adapted  to  the  plant  nor 
to  the  grazing  for  which  the  plant  is  generally  sowed.  For 
winter  r}-e  the  land  should  be  broken  from  four  to  six 
inches.  Harrows  should  follow  the  plows  until  the  land  is 
well  pulverized.  In  some  cold  prairie  lands,  however,  r\e  is 
put  in  with  a  grain-drill  before  a  plow  removes  the  stubble 
from  the  land.  The  purpose  of  planting  in  this  way  is  to  let 
the  stubble  protect  the  young  plants  from  cold,  driving  winds. 

Rye  should  go  into  the  ground  earlier  than  wheat.  In  cold, 
bleak  chmates,  as  well  as  on  poor  land,  the  seeding  should 
be  early.  The  young  plant  needs  to  get  rooted  and  topped 
before  cold  weather  sets  in.  The  only  danger  in  ver)-  early 
planting  is  that  leaf-rust  sometimes  attacks  the  fonvard  crop. 
Of  course  the  earlier  the  r\e  is  ready  for  fall  and  winter 
pasturage,  the  better.  If  a  drill  is  used  for  planting,  a  seeding 
of  from  three  to  four  pecks  to  the  acre  should  give  a  good 
stand.  In  case  the  seeds  are  to  be  sowed  broadcast,  a  bushel 
or  a  bushel  and  a  half  for  ever)'  acre  is  needed.  The  seed 
should  be  covered  as  wheat  seed  is  and  the  ground  rolled. 

Rye  is  generally  used  as  a  grazing  or  as  a  soiling  crop. 
Therefore  its  value  will  depend  largely  on  its  \-igorous  grovsth 
in  stems  and  leaves.  To  get  this  growth,  liberal  amounts  of 
nitrogenous  fertilizer  will  have  to  be  applied  unless  the  land 
is  ver\'  rich.  Put  barnyard  manure  on  the  land  just  after  the 
first  breaking  and  disk  the  manure  into  the  soil.  Acid  phos- 
phate and  kainite  added  to  the  manure  may  pay  handsomely. 
A  spring  top-dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  usually  helpful. 


FARM  CROPS  215 

Rye  has  a  stiff  straw  and  does  not  fall,  or  "  lodge,"  so  badly 
as  some  of  the  other  cereals.  As  soon  as  r\e  that  is  meant 
for  threshing  is  cut,  it  should  be  put  up  in  shocks  until  it 
is  thoroughly  dry.  Begin  the  cutting  when  the  kernels  are 
in  a  tough  dough  state.  The  grain  should  never  stand  long 
in  the  shocks. 

SECTION  XLIV.    BARLEY 

Barley  is  one  of  the  oldest  crops  known  to  man.  The  old 
historian  Pliny  says  that  barley  was  the  first  food  of  mankind. 
Modern  man  however  prefers  wheat  and  com  and  potatoes 
to  barley,  and  as  a  food  this  ancient  crop  is  in  America  turned 
over  to  the  lower  animals.  Brewers  use  barley  extensively  in 
making  malt  liquors.  Barley  grows  in  nearly  all  sections  of 
our  country,  but  a  few  states —  namely,  Minnesota,  California, 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  North  and  South  Dakota  —  are  seed- 
ing large  areas  to  this  crop. 

For  malting-purposes  the  barley  raised  on  rather  light, 
friable,  porous  soil  is  best.  Soils  of  this  kind  are  likely  to 
produce  a  medium  yield  of  bright  grain.  Fertile  loamy  and 
clay  soils  make  generally  a  heavier  yield  of  barley,  but  the 
grain  is  dark  and  fit  only  to  be  fed  to  stock.  Barley  is  a  shal- 
low feeder,  and  can  reach  only  such  plant  food  as  is  found 
in  the  top  soil,  so  its  food  should  alwa\s  be  put  within  reach 
by  a  thorough  breaking,  harrowing,  and  mellowing  of  the  soil, 
and  by  fertilizing  if  the  soil  is  poor.  Barley  has  been  success- 
fully raised  both  by  irrigation  and  by  dry-farming  methods. 
It  requires  a  better-prepared  soil  than  the  other  grain  crops ; 
it  makes  fine  yields  when  it  follows  some  crop  that  has 
received  a  hea\y  dressing  of  manure.  Capital  yields  are  pro- 
duced after  alfalfa  or  after  root  crops.  This  crop  usually 
matures  within  a  hundred  days  from  its  seeding. 


2i6  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

\\"hen  the  crop  is  to  be  sold  to  the  brewers,  a  grain  rich 
in  starch  should  be  secured.  Barley  intended  for  malting 
should  be  fertilized  to  this  end.  Many  experiments  have 
shown  that  a  fertilizer  which  contains  much  potash  will  pro- 
duce starchy  barle}'.  If  the  barley  be  intended  for  stock,  vou 
should  breed  so  as  to  get  protein  in  the  grain  and  in  the 
stalk.  Hence  barley  which  is  to  be  fed  should  be  fertilized 
^rith  mixtures  containing  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid. 


Fig.  .^09.   Barley 

Young  barley  plants  are  more  likely  to  be  hurt  b}-  cold  than 
either  wheat  or  oats.  Hence  barley  ought  not  to  be  seeded 
until  all  danger  from  frost  is  o\-er.  The  seeds  should  be  cov- 
ered deeper  than  the  seeds  of  wheat  or  of  oats.  Four  inches  is 
perhaps  an  average  depth  for  covering.  But  the  covering  will 
vaiy  with  the  time  of  planting,  with  the  kind  of  ground,  with 
the  climate,  and  \rith  the  nature  of  the  season.  Fewer  seeds 
will  be  needed  if  the  barley  is  planted  by  means  of  a  drilk 


FARM  CROPS  217 

Like  other  cereals,  barley  should  not  be  grown  continuously 
on  the  same  land.  It  should  take  its  place  in  a  well-planned 
rotation.  It  mav  profitablv  follow  potatoes  or  other  hoed 
crops,  but  it  should  not  come  first  after  wheat,  oats,  or  r}-e. 

Barley  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  most  of  its  kernels 
have  reached  the  hard  dough  state.  It  is  more  likely  to  shat- 
ter its  grain  than  are  other  cereals,  and  it  should  therefore 
be  handled  with  care.  It  must  also  be  watched  to  prevent 
its  sprouting  in  the  shocks.  Be  sure  to  put  few  bundles  in 
the  shock  and  to  cap  the  shock  securely  enough  to  keep 
out  dew  and  rain.  If  possible  the  barley  should  be  threshed 
directly  from  the  shock,  as  much  handling  will  occasion  a 
serious  loss  from  shattering:. 


SECTION  XLV.    SUGAR  PLANTS 

In  the  United  States  there  are  three  sources  from  which 
sugar  is  obtained  ;  namely,  the  sugar-maple,  the  sugar-beet, 
and  the  sugar-cane.  In  the  early  days  of  our  country-  con- 
siderable quantities  of  maple  sirup  and  maple  sugar  were 
made.  This  was  the  first  source  of  sugar.  Then  sugar-cane 
began  to  be  grown.    Later  the  sugar-beet  was  introduced. 

Maple  Products.  In  many  states  sirup  and  sugar  are  still 
made  from  maple  sap.  In  the  spring  when  the  sap  is  flow- 
ing freely  maple  trees  are  tapped  and  spouts  are  inserted. 
Through  these  spouts  the  sap  flows  into  vessels  set  to  catch 
it.  The  sap  is  boiled  in  evaporating-pans,  and  made  into 
either  sirup  or  sugar.  Four  gallons  of  sap  yield  about  one 
pound  of  sugar.  A  single  tree  yields  from  two  to  six  pounds 
of  sugar  in  a  season.  The  sap  cannot  be  kept  long  after 
it  is  collected.  Practice  and  skill  are  needed  to  produce  an 
attractive  and  palatable  grade  of  sirup  or  of  sugar. 


2l8 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Sugar-Beets.  The  sugar-beet  is  a  comparatively  new  root 
crop  in  America.  The  amount  of  sugar  that  can  be  obtained 
from  beets  varies  from  twelve  to  tA,\ent)-  per  cent.  The  rich- 
ness in  sugar  depends  somewhat  on  the  varien  gTo\\Ti  and 
on  the  soil  and  the  climate. 

So  far  most  of  our  sugar-beet  seeds  have  been  brought 
over  from  Europe.    Some  of  our  planters  are  now,  however. 


Fig.  2IO.   Catchlsg  Maple  Sap 


gaining  the  skill  and  the  knowledge  needed  to  grow  these 
seeds.  It  is  of  course  important  to  grow  seeds  that  will 
produce  beets  containing  much  sugar. 

These  beets  do  well  in  a  great  \-ariet}'  of  soils  if  the  land 
is  rich,  well  prepared,  and  well  drained,  and  has  a  porous 
subsoil. 

Beets  cannot  grow  to  a  large  size  in  hard  land.  Hence 
deep  plowing  is  ver\-  necessar}-  for  this  crop.    The  soil  should 


FARM  CROPS 


219 


be  loose  enough  for  the  whole  body  of  the  beet  to  remain 
underground.  Some  growers  prefer  spring  plowing  and  some 
fall  plowing,  but  all  agree  that  the  land  should  not  be  turned 
less  than  eight  or  ten  inches.  The  subsoil,  however,  should 
not  be  turned  up  too  much  at  the  first  deep  plowing. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  make  the  seed-bed  firm 
and  mellow  and  to  have  it  free 
from  clods.  If  the  soil  is  dr)'  at 
planting-time  and  there  is  likeli- 
hood of  high  winds,  the  seed- 
bed may  be  rolled  with  profit. 
Experienced  growers  use  from 
ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  seeds 
to  an  acre.  It  is  better  to  use 
too  many  rather  than  too  few 
seeds,  for  it  is  easy  to  thin  out 
the  plants,  but  rather  difficult 
to  transplant  them.  The  seeds 
are  usually  drilled  in  rows  about 
twenty  inches  apart.  Of  course, 
if  the  soil  is  rather  warm  and 
moist  at  planting-time,  fewer 
seeds  will  be  needed  than  when 
germination  is  likely  to  be  slow. 

A  good  rotation  should  always  be  planned  for  this  beet. 
A  very  successful  one  is  as  follows  :  for  the  first  year,  corn 
heavily  fertilized  with  stable  manure ;  for  the  second  year, 
sugar-beets  ;  for  the  third  year,  oats  or  barley  ;  for  the  fourth 
year,  clover ;  then  go  back  again  to  corn.  In  addition  to 
keeping  the  soil  fertile,  there  are  t\vo  gains  from  this  rota- 
tion :  first,  the  clean  cultivation  of  the  corn  crop  just  ahead 
of  the  beets  destroys  many  of  the  weed  seeds ;  second,  the 


Fifi.  211.    Siuak-Heet 


220  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

beets  must  be  protected  from  too  much  nitn^en  in  the  soil, 
for  an  excess  of  nitrogen  makes  a  be&t  too  large  to  be  rich  in 
sugar.  The  manure,  heavilv^  applied  to  the  com.  will  leave 
enough  nitrogen  and  other  plant  food  in  the  soil  to  make  a 
good  crop  of  beets  and  a\X)id  any  danger  of  an  excess. 

WTien  the  outside  leaves  of  the  beet  take  on  a  yellow  tinge 
and  drop  to  the  ground,  the  beets  are  ripe.    The  mature  beets 


i-IG.  ^i;.     brG.iLK.-BzZT>    j>    THE   V.  AY   TC>  A   1-ACTXjKY 

are  richer  in  sugar  than  the  immature,  therefOTe  they  should 
not  be  harvested  too  soon.  They  may  remain  in  the  ground 
without  injury  for  some  time  after  the^-  are  ripe.  Cold  weather 
does  not  injure  the  roots  unless  it  is  accompanied  by  freezing 
and  thawing. 

The  beets  are  harvested  by  sugar-beet  pullers  or  by  hand. 
If  the  roots  are  to  be  gathered  by  hand  the\-  are  usualty 
loosened  by  plowing  on  each  side  of  them.  If  the  roots  are 
stored  they  should  be  put  in  long,  narrow  pfles  and  covered 


FARM  CROPS 


221 


with  straw  and  earth 
to  protect  them  from 
frost.  A  ventilator 
placed  at  the  top  of 
the  pile  will  enable 
the  heat  and  moisture 
to  escape.  If  the 
beets  get  too  warm 
they  will  ferment  and 
some  of  their  sugar 
will  be  lost. 

Sugar-Cane.  Sugar- 
cane is  grown  along 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  South  Atlantic 
coast.  In  Mississippi, 
in  Alabama,  Florida, 
Georgia,  South  Caro- 
lina, northern  Louisi- 
ana, and  in  northern 
Texas  it  is  generally 
made  into  sirup.  In 
southern  Louisiana 
and  southern  Texas 
the  cane  is  usually 
crushed  for  sugar  or 
for  molasses. 

The  sugar-cane  is 
a  huge  grass.  The 
stalk,  which  is  round, 
is  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  thickness. 


Fig.  213.    Stalk  of  Sugar-Caxe 

A-B,  joints  of  cane  showing  roots  :  B-C.  stem  : 
C-D,  leaves 


222 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


D 


The  stalks  vary  in  color.  Some  are  white,  some  yellow,  some 
green,  some  red,  some  purple,  and  some  black,  while  others 
are  a  mixture  of  two  or  three  of  these  colors.  As  shown  in 
Fig.  214  the  stalk  has  joints  at  distances  of  from  two  to  six 
inches.  These  joints  are  called  nodes,  and  the  sections  be- 
tween the  nodes  are  known  as  internodes. 
The  internodes  ripen  from  the  roots 
upward,  and  as  each  ripens  it  casts  its 
leaves.  The  stalk,  when  ready  for  har- 
vesting, has  only  a  few  leaves  on  the  top. 
Under  each  leaf  and  on  alternate 
sides  of  the  cane  a  bud,  or  "'  eye,"  forms. 
From  this  eye  the  cane  is  usually  propa- 
gated ;  for,  while  in  tropical  countries  the 
cane  forms  seeds,  yet  these  seeds  are 
rarely  fertile.  When  the  cane  is  ripe  it  is 
stripped  of  leaves,  topped,  and  cut  at  the 
ground  with  a  knife.  The  sugar  is  con- 
tained in  solution  in  the  pith  of  the  cane. 
Cane  requires  an  enormous  amount 
of  water  for  its  best  growth,  and  where 
the  rainfall  is  not  great  enough,  the  plants 
^,  buds,  or  eyes ;  c,  nodes;  are  irrigated.  It  requires  from  seventy- 
five  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  to 
make  a  pound  of  sugar.  Cane  does  best 
where  there  is  a  rainfall  of  two  inches  a  week.  At  the  same 
time  a  well-drained  soil  is  necessary  to  make  vigorous  canes. 
The  soils  suited  to  this  plant  are  those  which  contain  large 
amounts  of  fertilizing  material  and  which  can  hold  much  water. 
In  southern  Louisiana  alluvial  loams  and  loamy  clay  soils  are 
cultivated.  In  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Florida  light,  sandy 
soils,  when  properly  fertilized  and  worked,  make  good  crops. 


D 


D 


x--fe^ 


Fig.  214.    Stick  of 
Sugar-Cane 


D,   internodes ;    X,   semi- 
transparent  dots  in  rows 


i 

223 


i 

^^" 

yi 

-Jfc 

^ 

^3r 

f^0^- 

1 

i 

•'*i^p*j^j 

1^ 

^^i^r^^r 

R^^S 

wV 


•<  ^■'5  '  JJ-»; 


s-!C 


m 


J24 


FARM  CROPS 


225 


Cane  is  usually  planted  in  rows  from  five  to  six  feet  apart. 
A  trench  is  opened  in  the  center  of  the  row  with  a  plow  and 
in  this  open  furrow  is  placed  a  continuous  line  of  stalks  which 
are  carefully  covered  with  plow,  culti\ator,  or  hoe.  From 
one  to  three  continuous  lines  of  stalks  are  placed  in  the  fur- 
row.  From  two  to  six  tons  of  seed  cane  are  needed  for  an  acre. 


1 

1 

1,1-^ 

/^   Jl^         ^m\. 

Fig.  217.    A  Common  Tvi'E  ok  Sirup  Factory 


In  favorable  weather  the  cane  soon  sprouts  and  cultivation 
begins.  Cane  should  be  cultivated  at  short  intervals  until  the 
plants  are  large  enough  to  shade  the  soil.  In  Louisiana  one 
planting  of  cane  usually  gives  two  crops.  The  first  is  called 
plant  cane  ;  the  second  is  known  as  first-year  stubble,  or  ratoon. 
Sometimes  second-year  stubble  is  grown. 

In  Louisiana  large  quantities  of  tankage,  cotton-seed  meal, 
and  acid  phosphate  are  used  to  fertilize  cane-fields.    Each 


226  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

country  has  its  own  time  for  planting  and  harvesting.  In 
Louisiana,  for  example,  canes  are  planted  from  October  to 
April.  In  the  L'nited  States  cane  is  harxested  each  year 
because  of  frost,  but  in  tropical  countries  the  stalks  are  per- 
mitted to  grow  from  fifteen  to  twent)^four  months. 

On  many  farms  a  small  mill,  the  rollers  of  which  are  turned 
b)^  horses,  is  used  for  crushing  the  juice  out  of  the  cane. 
The  juice  is  then  evaporated  in  a  k^tle  or  pan.  This  equip- 
ment is  ver\'  cheap  and  can  easily  be  operated  bj"  a  small 
family.  While  these  mills  rarely  extract  more  than  one  half 
of  the  juice  in  the  cane,  the  sirup  made  by  them  is  ven*  pal- 
atable and  usually  commands  a  good  price.  Cosdy  machinei}' 
which  saves  most  of  the  juice  is  used  in  the  large  commercial 
sugar  houses. 

SECTION  XLVL    HEMP  ANT)  FLAX 

In  the  early^  ages  of  the  world,  mankind  is  supposed  to 
have  worn  very  litde  or  no  clothing.  Then  leaves  and  the 
inner  bark  of  trees  were  fashioned  into  a  protection  from  the 
weather.  These  flimsy  garments  were  later  replaced  by  skins 
and  furs.  As  man  advanced  in  knowledge,  he  learned  how 
to  twist  wool  and  hairs  into  threads  and  to  weave  these  into 
durable  garments.  Still  later,  perhaps,  he  discovered  that 
some  plants  conceal  under  their  outer  bark  soft,  tough  fibers 
that  can  be  changed  into  excellent  cloth.  Flax  and  hemp 
were  doubtless  among  the  first  plants  to  furnish  this  fiber. 

Flax.  Among  the  fiber  crops  of  the  world,  flax  ranks  next 
to  cottoiL  It  is  the  material  from  which  is  woven  the  linen 
for  sheets,  towels,  tablecloths,  shirts,  collars,  dresses,  and  a 
host  of  other  articles.  Fortunately  for  man,  flax  will  thrive 
in  many  countries  and  in  many  climates.   The  fiber  from 


FARM  CROPS 


22\ 


which  these  useful  articles  are  made,  unlike  cotton  fiber,  does 
not  come  from  the  fruit,  but  from  the  stem.  It  is  the  soft, 
silky  lining  of  the  bark  which  lies  between  the  woody  outside 
and  the  pith  cells  of  the  stem. 

The  Old  World  engages  largely  in  flax  culture  and  flax 
manufacture,  but  in  our  countr)-  flax  is  grown  principally 
for  its  seed.  From  the  seeds  we  make  linseed  oil,  linseed-oil 
cake,  and  linseed  meal. 

Flax  grows  best  on  deep, 
loamy  soils,  but  also  makes  a 
profitable  growth  on  clay  soils. 
With  sufficient  fertilizing  mate- 
rial it  can  be  grown  on  sandy 
lands.  Nitrogen  is  especially 
needed  by  this  plant  and  should 
be  liberally  supplied.  To  meet 
this  demand  for  nitrogen,  it  pays 
to  plant  a  leguminous  crop  im- 
mediately before  flax. 

After  a  mellow  seed-bed  has 
been  made  ready  and  after  the 
weather  is  fairly  warm,  sow,  if 
a  seed  crop  is  desired,  at  the 
rate  of  from  two  to  three  pecks  an  acre.  A  good  seed  crop 
will  not  be  harvested  if  the  plants  are  too  thick.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  a  fiber  crop  is  to  be  raised,  it  is  desirable  to 
plant  more  thickly,  so  that  the  stalks  may  not  branch,  but 
run  up  into  a  single  stem.  From  a  bushel  to  two  bushels  of 
seed  is  in  this  case  used  to  an  acre.  Flax  requires  care  and 
work  from  start  to  finish. 

When  the  seeds  are  full  and  plump  the  flax   is   ready 
for  harvesting.    In  America  a  binder  is  generally  used  for 


Flax 


228 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


cutting  the  stalks.  Our  average  yield  of  flax  is  from  eight 
to  fifteen  bushels  an  acre. 

Hemp.  Like  flax,  hemp  adapts  itself  wonderfully  to  many 
countries  and  many  climates.  However,  in  America  most  of 
our  hemp  is  grown  in  Kentucky. 

Hemp  needs  soil  rich  enough  to  give  the  young  plants  a 
very  rapid  growth  in  their  early  days  so  that  they  may  form 


Fig. 


•ig. 


Cutting  Hemp 


long  fibers 


To  give  this  crop  abundant  nitrogen  without 
great  cost,  it  should  be  grown  in  a  rotation  which  includes 
one  of  the  legumes.  Rich,  well-drained  bottom-lands  produce 
the  largest  yields  of  hemp,  but  uplands  which  have  been 
heavily  manured  make  profitable  yields. 

The  ground  for  hemp  is  prepared  as  for  other  grain  crops. 
The  seed  is  generally  broadcasted  for  a  fiber  crop  and  then 
harrowed  in.    No  cultivation  is  required  after  seeding. 


FARM   CROPS  229 

If  hemp  is  grown  for  seed,  it  is  best  to  plant  with  a  drill 
so  that  the  crop  ma\'  be  culti\'ated.  The  stalks  after  being 
cut  are  put  in  shocks  until  they  are  dr}\  Then  the  seeds  are 
threshed.  Large  amounts  of  hemp  seed  are  sold  for  caged 
birds  and  for  poultr}- ;  it  is  also  used  for  paint-oils. 


SECTION   XLVII.    BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat  shares  with  r)-e  and  cowpeas  the  power  to 
make  a  fairly  good  crop  on  poor  land.  At  the  same  time, 
of  course,  a  full  crop  can  be  expected  only  from  fertile  land. 

The  three  varieties  most  grown  in  America  are  the  com- 
mon gray,  the  silver-hull,  and  the  Japanese.  The  seeds  of 
the  common  gray  are  larger  than  the  silver-hull,  but  not  so 
large  as  the  Japanese.  The  seeds  from  the  gray  variety  are 
generally  regarded  as  inferior  to  the  other  two.  This  crop 
is  grown  to  best  advantage  in  climates  where  the  nights  are 
cool  and  moist.  It  matures  more  quickly  than  any  other 
grain  crop  and  is  remarkably  free  from  disease.  The  yield 
varies  from  ten  to  forty  bushels  an  acre.  Buckwheat  does 
not  seem  to  draw  plant  food  heavily  from  the  soil  and  can 
be  grown  on  the  same  land  from  year  to  year. 

In  fertilizing  buckwheat  land,  green  manures  and  rich 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  should  be  avoided.  These  cause  such 
a  luxuriant  growth  that  the  stalks  lodge  badly. 

The  time  of  seeding  will  have  to  be  settled  by  the  height 
of  the  land  and  bv  the  climate.  In  northern  climates  and  in 
high  altitudes  the  seeding  is  generally  done  in  May  or  June. 
In  southern  climates  and  in  low  altitudes  the  planting  may 
wait  until  July  or  August.  The  plant  usually  matures  in  about 
seventy  days.  It  cannot  stand  warm  weather  at  blooming- 
time,  and   must  always  be  planted   so  that  it   may  escape 


2:;o 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


waim  weather  in  its  U[cx>inmg  period  and  cold  weather  in  its 
matniing  season.  The  seeds  are  commonly  broadcasted  at 
an  average  rate  erf  four  pecks  to  the  acre.  If  the  land  is  loose 
and  pulverized,  it  should  be  ndled. 

Bodndieat  ripens  unevenly  and  -nill   continue  to  bloom 
finosL    Harvesting:  "usuallv  besir-  "v~t  ;;f^::-  ^^e  :^r=-t  ?rop 


of  seeds  have  matured.  To  keep  the  grains  from  shattering, 
the  harvesting  is  best  done  during  damp  or  cloudv  da3-s  or 
earl}'  in  the  monaing  while  the  dew  is  still  on  the  grain.  The 
grain  shooild  be  threshed  as  soon  as  it  is  dr\"  enough  to  go 
through  the  thresher. 

Biickwheat  is  girown  largely  for  table  use.  The  grain  is 
crushed  into  a  dark  iflomr  that  makes  most  palatable  break- 
fast cakes.  The  grain,  e^>ecMly  when  mixed  with  com,  is 
becoming  pc^jukr  for  poeMij^  food.  The  middlings,  which 
are  rich  in  fais  and  protein,  are  prized  for  dairy  cows. 


FARM  CROPS  2^1 


SECTION  XLVIII.    RICE 


The  United  States  produces  only  about  one  half  of  the  rice 
that  it  consumes.  There  is  no  satisfactory  reason  for  our  not 
raising  more  of  this  staple  crop,  for  five  great  states  along 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  well  adapted  to  its  culture. 

There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  rice,  upland  rice  and  low- 
land rice.  Upland  rice  demands  in  general  the  same  methods 
of  culture  that  are  required  bv  other  cereals,  for  example, 


Fig.  221.   Threshing  Rice 

oats  or  wheat.  The  growing  of  lowland  rice  is  considerably 
more  difficult  and  includes  the  necessit}-  of  flooding  the 
fields  with  water  at  proper  times. 

A  stiff,  half-clay  soil  with  some  loam  is  best  suited  to  this 
crop.  The  soil  should  have  a  clay  subsoil  to  retain  water 
and  to  give  stiffness  enough  to  allow  the  use  of  harvesting- 
machinen-.  Some  good  rice  soils  are  so  stiff  that  thev  must 
be  flooded  to  soften  them  enough  to  admit  of  plowing.  Plow 
deeply  to  give  the  roots  ample  feeding-space.  Good  tillage, 
which  is  too  often  neglected,  is  valuable. 

Careful  seed-selection  is  perhaps  even  more  needed  for 
rice  than  for  any  other  crop.  Consumers  want  kernels  of  the 
same  size.    Be  sure  that  nouf  seed  is  free  from  red  rice  and 


2  32  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

other  weeds.  Drilling  is  much  better  than  broadcasting,  as 
it  secures  a  more  even  distribution  of  the  seed. 

The  notion  generally  prevails  that  flooding  returns  to  the 
soil  the  needed  fertilit}-.  This  may  be  true  if  the  flooding- 
water  deposits  much  silt,  but  if  the  water  be  clear  it  is  untrue, 
and  fertilizers  or  leguminous  crops  are  needed  to  keep  up 
fertilitv.  Cowpeas  replace  the  lost  soil-elements  and  keep 
down  weeds,  grasses,  and  red  rice. 

Red  rice  is  a  weed  close  kin  to  rice,  but  the  seed  of  one 
will  not  produce  the  other.  Do  not  allow  it  to  get  mixed  and 
sowed  with  your  rice  seed  or  to  go  to  seed  in  vour  field. 


SECTION   XLIX.    THE  TIMBER  CROP 

Forest  trees  are  not  usually  regarded  as  a  crop,  but  they 
are  certainly  one  of  the  most  important  crops.  We  should 
accustom  ourselves  to  look  on  our  trees  as  needing  and  as 
deserx-ing  the  same  care  and  thought  that  we  give  to  our  other 
field  crops.  The  total  number  of  acres  given  to  the  growth 
of  forest  trees  js  still  enormous,  but  we  should  each  year  add 
to  this  acreage. 

Unfortunately  ver\-  few  forests  are  so  managed  as  to  add 
yearly  to  their  value  and  to  preser\-e  a  model  stand  of  trees. 
Axmen  generally  fell  the  great  trees  without  thought  of  the 
young  trees  that  should  at  once  begin  to  fill  the  places  left 
vacant  b\-  the  fallen  giants.  0\\*ners  rarely  study  their  wood- 
lands to  be  sure  that  the  trees  are  thick  enough,  or  to  find 
out  whether  the  saplings  are  ruinously  crowding  one  another. 
Disease  is  often  allowed  to  slip  in  unchecked.  Old  trees 
stand  long  after  they  have  outlived  their  usefulness. 

The  farm  wood-lot,  too.  is  often  neglected.  As  forests  are 
being  swept  away,  fuel  is  of  course  becoming  scarcer  and 


FARM  CROPS  233 

more  costly.  Even-  farmer  ought  to  plant  trees  enough  on 
his  waste  land  to  make  sure  of  a  constant  supply  of  fuel. 
The  land  saved  for  the  wood-lot  should  be  selected  from  land 
unfit  for  cultivation.  Steep  hillsides,  rocky  slopes,  ravines, 
banks  of  streams  —  these  can,  without  much  expense  or 
labor,  be  set  in  trees  and  insure  a  never-ending  fuel  supply. 


Fig.  222.   Wood  Lot 
Before  proper  treatment 

The  most  common  enemies  of  the  forest  crop  are  : 

First,  forest  fires.  The  waste  from  forest  fires  in  the  United 
States  is  most  startling.  Many  of  these  fires  are  the  result 
of  carelessness  or  ignorance.  Most  of  the  states  have  made 
or  are  now  making  laws  to  prevent  and  to  control  such  fires. 

Second,  fungous  diseases.  The  timber  loss  from  these 
diseases  is  exceedingly  great. 

Third,  insects  of  many  kinds  prey  on  the  trees.  Some 
strip  all  the  leaves  from  the  branches.    Others  bore  into  the 


2  34  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

roots,  trunk,  or  branches.    Some  lead  to  a  slow  death  ;  others 
are  more  quickly  fatal. 

Fourth,  improper  grazing.  Turning  animals  into  young 
woods  may  lead  to  serious  loss.  The  animals  frequently  ruin 
young  trees  by  eating  all  the  foliage.  Hogs  often  unearth  and 
consume  most  of  the  seeds  needed  for  a  good  growth. 


'fclS  Mt^ 


:^Sa.f^^il^ 


im^^^^ 


Fig.  223.   Wood  Lot 
After  proper  treatment 

The  handling  of  forests  is  a  business  just  as  the  growing 
of  corn  is  a  business.  In  old  forests,  dead  and  dying  trees 
should  be  cut.  Trees  that  occupy  space  and  yet  have  little 
commercial  value  should- give  way  to  more  valuable  trees. 
A  quick-growing  tree,  if  it  is  equally  desirable,  should  be 
preferred  to  a  slow  grower.  An  even  distribution  of  the 
trees  should  be  secured. 

In  all  there  are  about  five  hundred  species  of  trees  which 
are  natives  of  the  United  States.    Probably  not  over  seventy 


FARM  CROPS  235 

of  these  are  desirable  for  forests.  In  selecting  trees  to  plant 
or  to  allow  to  grow  from  their  own  seeding,  pick  those  that 
make  a  quick  growth,  that  have  a  steady  market  value,  and 
that  suit  the  soil,  the  place  of  growth,  and  the  climate. 

SECTION   L.    THE   FARM   GARDEN 

Every  farmer  needs  a  garden  in  which  to  grow  not  only 
vegetables  but  small  fruits  for  the  home  table. 

The  garden  should  always  be  within  convenient  distance 
of  the  farmhouse.  If  possible,  the  spot  selected  should  have 
a  soil  of  mixed  loam  and  clay.  Every  foot  of  soil  in  the  gar- 
den should  be  made  rich  and  mellow  by  manure  and  cultiva- 
tion. The  worst  soils  for  the  home  garden  are  light,  sandy 
soils,  or  stiff,  clayey  soils  ;  but  any  soil,  by  judicious  and 
intelligent  culture,  can  be  made  suitable. 

In  laying  out  the  garden  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  hand 
labor  is  the  most  expensive  kind  of  labor.  Hence  we  should 
not,  as  is  commonly  done,  lay  off  the  garden  spot  in  the  form 
of  a  square,  but  we  should  mark  off  for  our  purpose  a  long, 
narrow  piece  of  land,  so  that  the  cultivating  tools  may  all 
be  conveniontlv  drawn  by  a  horse  or  a  mule.  The  use  of  the 
plow  and  the  horse  cultivator  enables  the  cultivation  of  the 
garden  to  be  done  quickly,  easily,  and  cheaply. 

Each  vegetable  or  fruit  should  be  planted  in  rows,  and  not 
in  little  patches.  Beginning  with  one  side  of  the  garden  the 
following  plan  of  arrangement  is  simple  and  complete  :  two 
rows  to  corn  for  table  use ;  two  to  cabbages,  beets,  radishes, 
and  eggplants  ;  two  to  onions,  peas,  and  beans  ;  two  to  oyster- 
plants,  okra,  parsley,  and  turnips  ;  two  to  tomatoes  ;  then  four 
on  the  other  side  can  be  used  for  strawberries,  blackberries, 
raspberries,  currants,  and  gooseberries. 


2^6 


FARM  CROPS  237 

The  garden,  when  so  arranged,  can  be  tilled  in  the  spring 
and  tended  throughout  the  growing  season  with  little  labor 
and  little  loss  of  time.  In  return  for  this  odd-hour  work,  the 
farmer's  family  will  have  throughout  the  year  an  abundance  of 
fresh,  palatable,  and  health-giving  vegetables  and  small  fruits. 

The  keynote  of  successful  gardening  is  to  stir  the  soil. 
Stir  it  often  with  four  objects  in  view : 

1.  To  destroy  weeds. 

2.  To  let  air  enter  the  soil. 

3.  To  enrich  the  soil  by  the  action  of  the  air. 

4.  To  retain  the  moisture  by  preventing  its  evaporation. 


corn 

corn 

cabbage 

beets 

radish 

es                                   ' 

cabbage 

beets 

^ss-i> 

ants                             1 

onions 

peas 

beans 

onions 

peas 

beans 

oyster-plants 

okra 

parsley 

parsnips 

ovster-plants 

okra 

parsJev 

parsnips 

to 

niatoes 

tomatoes 

strawberries 

currants 

1      raspberries 

blackberries          | 

strawberries 

currants 

raspl)erries 

1 

blackberries 

strawberries 

currants 

raspberries 

blackberries         1 

strawberries 

1        currants 

raspberries 

blackberries         | 

Fig.  225.    How  to  lav  out  the  Garden  ' 

This  illustration  shows  that  practically  even,-  garden  vege- 
table and  all  the  small  fruits  can  be  included  in  the  farm 
garden,  and  all  the  work  be  done  by  horse-drawn  tools. 

^  The  number  of  rows  and  arrangement  of  the  vegetables  in  the  outline 
above  are  merely  suggestive.  They  should  be  changed  to  meet  the  needs 
and  the  tastes  of  each  particular  family. 


CHAPTER  IX 
FEED  STUFFS 

SECTIOX  LI.    GIL\SSES 

Under  usual  conditions  no  farmer  expects  to  grow  live 
stock  successful!}-  and  economically  without  setting  apan  a 
large  part  of  his  land  for  the  gro\Ath  of  mowing  and  pasture 
crops.  Therefore  to  the  grower  of  stock  the  management  of 
grass  crops  is  all-important. 

In  planting  either  for  a  meadow  or  for  a  pasture,  the  farmer 
should  mix  different  ^'arieties  of  grass  seeds.  Nature  mixes 
them  when  she  plants,  and  Nature  is  always  a  trust\vorth3' 
teacher. 

In  planting  for  a  pasture  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  such 
seeds  as  will  give  green  grass  from  early  spring  to  latest  fall. 
In  seeding  for  a  meadow  such  varieties  should  be  sowed 
together  as  ripen  about  the  same  time. 

Even  in  those  sections  of  the  countn-  where  it  grows 
sparingly  and  where  it  is  easily  crowded  out,  clover  should 
be  mixed  \nth  all  grasses  sowed,  for  it  leaves  in  the  soil  a 
wealth  of  plant  food  for  the  grasses  coming  after  it  to  feed 
on.  Nearly  ever)^  part  of  our  countn'  has  some  clover  that 
experience  shows  to  be  exactly  suited  to  its  soil  and  cli- 
mate. Study  these  clovers  carefully  and  mix  them  with 
your  grass  seed. 

The  reason  for  mixing  clover  and  grass  is  at  once  seen. 
The  true  grasses,  so  far  as  science  now  shows,  get  all  their 

238 


FEED   STUFFS 


239 


nitrogen  from  the  soil ;  hence  they  more  or  less  exhaust  the 
soil.  But,  as  several  times  explained  in  this  book,  the  clovers 
are  legumes,  and  all  legumes  are  able  by  means  of  the  bac- 
teria that  live  on  their  roots  to  use  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 
air.  Hence  without  cost  to  the  farmer  these  clovers  help  the 
soil  to  feed  their  neighbors,  the  true  grasses.  For  this  reason 
some  light  peren- 
nial legume  should 
always  be  added  to 
grass  seed. 

It  is  not  possible 
for  grasses  to  do 
well  in  a  soil  that 
is  full  of  weeds. 
For  this  reason  it 
is  always  best  to 
sow  grass  in  fields 
from  which  culti- 
vated crops  have 
just  been  taken. 
Soil  which  is  to 
have  grass  sowed 
in  it  should  have 
its  particles  pressed 
together.  The  small 
grass  seeds  cannot  take  root  and  grow  well  in  land  that  has 
just  been  plowed  and  which,  consequently,  has  its  particles 
loose  and  comparatively  far  apart.  On  the  other  hand,  land 
from  which  a  crop  of  com  or  cotton  has  just  been  har\-ested 
is  in  a  compact  condition.  The  soil  particles  are  pressed  well 
together.  Such  land  when  mellowed  by  harrowing  makes  a 
splendid  bed  for  grass  seeds.    A  firm  soil  draws  moisture  up 


Fig.  226.    Single  Plant  uk  Gl\m   Millet 


240  AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGINNERS 

to  the  seeds,  while  a  mellow  soil  acts  as  a  blanket  to  keep 
moisture  from  wasting  into  the  air,  and  at  the  same  time 
allows  the  heated  air  to  circulate  in  the  soil. 

In  case  land  has  to  be  plowed  for  grass-seeding,  the  plow- 
ing should  be  done  as  far  as  possible  in  advance  of  the  seeding. 
Then  the  plowed  land  should  be  harrowed  several  times  to 
get  the  land  in  a  soft,  mellow  condition. 

If  the  seed-bed  be  carefully  prepared,  little  work  on  the 
ground  is  necessar)'  after  the  seeds  are  sowed.  One  light 
harrowing  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  broadcast  seeds.  This 
harrowing  should  always  be  done  as  soon  as  the  seeds  are 
scattered,  for  if  there  be  moisture  in  the  soil  the  tiny  seeds 
will  soon  sprout,  and  if  the  harrowing  be  done  after  germi- 
nation is  somewhat  advanced,  the  tender  grass  plants  will 
be  injured. 

There  are  manv  kinds  of  pasture  and  meadow  grasses. 
In  New  England,  timothv,  red  clover,  and  redtop  are  gen- 
erallv  used  for  the  mowing  crop.  For  permanent  pasture,  in 
addition  to  those  mentioned,  there  should  be  added  white 
clover  and  either  Kentucky  or  Canadian  blue  grass.  In  the 
Southern  states  a  good  meadow  or  pasture  can  be  made  of 
orchard  grass,  red  clover,  and  redtop.  For  a  permanent 
pasture  in  the  South,  Japan  clover,  Bennuda,  and  such  other 
local  grasses  as  have  been  found  to  adapt  themselves  readily 
to  the  climate  should  be  added.  In  the  Middle  States  tem- 
porar}'  meadows  and  pastures  are  generally  made  of  timothy 
and  red  clover,  while  for  permanent  pastures  white  clover 
and  blue  grass  thrive  well.  In  the  more  western  states  the 
grasses  previouslv  suggested  are  readily  at  home.  Alfalfa  is 
proving  its  adaptability  to  nearly  all  sections  and  climates, 
and  is  in  many  respects  the  most  promising  grass  crop  of 
America. 


241 


242  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

It  hardlv  ever  pays  to  pasture  meadows,  except  slightly, 
the  first  season,  and  then  only  when  the  soil  is  dr}-.  It  is 
also  poor  policy  to  pasture  any  kind  of  grass  land  early  in 
the  spring  when  the  soil  is  \vet,  because  the  tramping  of 
animals  crushes  and  destroys  the  crowns  of  the  plants.  After 
the  first  year  the  sward  becomes  thicker  and  tougher,  and 
the  grass  is  not  at  all  injured  if  it  is  grazed  wisely. 


Fig.  228.   Alfalfa  the  Wonderful 
The  first  crop  of  the  season  is  being  cut  and  stored  for  winter 

The  state  of  maturity  at  which  grass  should  be  harvested 
to  make  hay  of  the  best  qualit}'  varies  somewhat  with  the 
different  grasses  and  with  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of 
the  hay.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  a  good  rule  to  cut  grass 
for  hay  just  as  it  is  beginning  to  bloom  or  just  after  the  bloom 
has  fallen.  All  grasses  become  less  palatable  to  stock  as  they 
mature  and  form  seed.  If  grass  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed, 
most  of  the  nutrition  in  the  stalk  is  used  to  form  the  seed. 


243 


^44  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Hence  a  good  deal  of  food  is  lost  b\-  waiting  to  cut  hay  until 
the  seeds  are  formed. 

Pasture  lands  and  meadow  lands  are  often  greatly  improved 
b\'  replowing  and  harrowing  in  order  to  break  up  the  turf 
that  forms  and  to  admit  air  more  freely  into  the  soil.  The 
plant-roots  that  are  destroyed  by  the  plowing  or  harrowing 
make  quickly  a\^able  plant  food  by  their  decay,  and  the 
physical  improvement  of  the  soil  leads  to  a  thicker  and  better 
stand.  In  the  older  sections  of  the  country-  commercial  fer- 
tilizer can  be  used  to  ad\:antage  in  producing  hay  and  pastur- 
age. If,  however,  clover  has  just  been  grown  on  grass  land 
or  if  it  is  growing  well  with  the  grass,  there  is  no  need  to 
add  nitrogen.  If  the  grass  seems  to  lack  sufficient  nourish- 
ment, add  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  However,  grass  not 
grown  in  company  wnth  clover  often  needs  dried  blood, 
nitrate  of  soda,  or  some  other  nitrogen-suppl\-ing  agent.  Of 
course  it  is  understood  that  no  better  fertilizer  can  be  applied 
to  grass  than  bamj-ard  manure. 

SECTION  LIT.    LEGUMES 

Often  land  which  was  once  thought  excellent  is  left  to 
grow  up  in  weeds.  The  owner  sa\-s  that  the  land  is  worn 
out,  and  that  it  will  not  pay  to  plant  it.  What  does  "  worn 
out "  mean  ?  Simply  that  constant  cropping  has  used  up  the 
plant  food  in  the  land.  Therefore,  plants  on  worn-out  land 
are  too  nearlv  staned  to  \-ield  bountifully.  Such  wearing  out 
is  so  easily  prevented  that  no  owner  ought  e\-er  to  allow  his 
land  to  become  poverh,--stricken.  But  in  case  this  misfortune 
has  happened,  how  can  the  land  be  again  made  fertile  ? 

On  page  24  you  learned  that  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and 
nitrogen  are  the  foods  most  needed  by  plants.    "  Worn  out," 


245 


246  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

then,  to  put  it  in  another  \ra3-,  usually  means  that  a  soil 
has  been  robbed  of  one  of  these  plant  necessities,  or  of  two  or 
of  all  three.  To  make  the  land  once  more  fruitful  it  is  neces- 
san-  to  restore  the  missing  food  or  foods.  How  can  this  be 
done?  Two  of  these  plant  foods,  namely,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash,  are  minerals.  If  either  of  these  is  lacking,  it 
can  be  supphed  only  bj'  putting  on  the  land  some  fertilizer 
containing  the  missing  food.  Fortunately,  however,  nitrogen, 
the  most  costly-  of  the  plant  foods,  can  be  readily  and  cheaply 
returned  to  poor  land. 

As  explained  on  page  32  the  leguminous  crops  have  the 
power  of  drawing  nitrogen  from  the  air  and,  by  means  of 
their  root-tubercles,  of  storing  it  in  the  sol.  Hence  by 
growing  these  crops  on  poor  land  the  expensive  nitrogen  is 
quickly  restored  to  the  soil,  and  only  the  two  cheaper  plant 
foods  need  be  bought  How  important  it  is  then  to  grow 
these  l^uminous  plants !  Every  farmer  should  so  rotate  his 
planting  that  at  least  once  ever\-  two  «"  three  years  a  crop 
of  l^;umes  may  add  to  the  fruitfulness  of  his  fields. 

Moreover  these  crops  help  land  in  another  wa)' .  They  send 
a  multitude  of  roots  deep  into  the  ground.  These  roots  loosen 
and  pulverize  the  soil,  and  their  decay,  at  the  end  of  the  grow- 
ing season,  leaves  much  humus  in  the  soil.  Land  will  rarely 
become  worn  out  if  l^^umes  are  regularly  and  wisely  grown. 

From  the  fact  that  they  do  well  in  so  many  different  sec- 
tions and  in  so  many  different  cUmates,  the  following  are  the 
most  useful  legumes :  alfalfa,  clovers,  cowpeas,  vetches,  and 
soy  beans. 

Alfalfa.  Alfalfa  is  primarily  a  hay  crop.  It  thrives  in  the 
Far  West,  in  the  Middle  West,  in  the  North,  and  in  the 
South.  In  fact,  it  will  do  well  wherever  the  soil  is  rich,  moist, 
deep,  and  imderlaid  by  an  open  subsoil.  The  \^ast  areas  given 


FEED  STUFFS 


247 


to  this  valuable  crop  are  yearly  increasing  in  ever\^  section 
of  the  United  States.  Alfalfa,  however,  unlike  the  covvpea, 
does  not  take  to  poor  land.  For  its  cultivation,  therefore, 
sood  fertile  land  that  is  moist  but  not  water-soaked  should 
be  selected. 

Good  farmers  are  partial  to  alfalfa  for  three  reasons.  First, 
it  yields  a  heavy  crop  of  forage  or  hay.  Second,  being  a 
legume,  it  improves  the  soil.  Third,  one  seeding  lasts  a  long 
time.  This  length 
of  life  may,  how- 
ever, be  destroyed 
by  pasturing  or  abus- 
ing the  alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  is  differ- 
ent from  most  plants 
in  this  respect :  the 
soil  in  which  it  grows 
must  have  certain 
kinds  of  bacteria  in 
it.  These  cause  the 
growth  of  tubercles 
on  the  roots.  These 
bacteria,  however, 
are  not  always  pres- 
ent in  land  that  has  not  been  planted  in  alfalfa.  Hence  if 
this  plant  is  to  be  grown  successfully  these  helpful  bacteria 
must  sometimes  be  supplied  artificially. 

There  are  t\vo  ver}'  easy  ways  of  supplying  the  germs. 
First,  fine  soil  from  an  alfalfa  field  may  be  scattered  broad- 
cast over  the  fields  to  be  seeded.  Second,  a  small  mass  of 
alfalfa  tubercle  germs  may  be  put  into  a  liquid  containing 
proper  food  to  make  these  germs  multiply  and  grow  ;  then 


Fig.  sii. 


Sheep  eattening  on  Aleaeea 
Stubble 


248  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

the  seeds  to  be  planted  are  soaked  in  this  hquid  in  order 
that  the  germs  may  fasten  on  the  seeds. 

Before  the  seeds  are  sowed  the  soU  should  be  mellowed. 
Over  this  well-prepared  land  about  twent\-  pounds  of  seed  to 
the  acre  should  be  scattered.  The  seed  may  be  scattered  by 
hand  or  by  a  seed-sower.  Cover  ^^-ith  a  hght  harrow.  The  time 
of  planting  \-aries  somewhat  with  the  climate.  Except  where 
the  winters  are  too  severe  the  seed  may  be  sowed  either  in 
the  spring  or  in  the  fall.    In  the  Sov.th  sow  onlv  in  the  fall. 


Fig.  232.   Herd  of  Dairy  Cattle  gr-azixg  ox  Alf-axfa  Stubble 

During  the  first  season  one  mowing,  perhaps  more,  is 
necessan"  to  insure  a  good  stand  and  also  to  keep  down  the 
weeds.  \\'hen  the  first  blossoms  appear  in  the  early  summer, 
it  is  time  to  start  the  mower.  After  this  the  alfalfa  should 
be  cut  even-  two,  three,  or  four  weeks.  The  number  of  times 
depends  on  the  rapidit)"  of  growth. 

This  crop  rarely  makes  a  good  \-ield  the  first  year,  but  if 
a  good  stand  be  secured,  the  peld  steadily  increases.  After  a 
good  stand  has  been  secured,  a  top-dressing  of  either  commer- 
cial fertilizer  or  stable  manure  wiU  be  ver}-  helpful.  An  occa- 
sional cutting-up  of  the  sod  with  a  disk  harrow  does  much  good. 


FEED  STUFFS  249 

Clovers.  The  different  kinds  of  clovers  will  sometimes 
grow  on  hard  or  poor  soil,  but  they  do  far  better  if  the  soil 
is  enriched  and  properly  prepared  before  the  seed  is  sowed. 
In  many  parts  of  our  countr)'  it  has  been  the  practice  for 
generations  to  sow  clover  seed  with  some  of  the  grain  crops. 
Barley,  wheat,  oats,  and  r)-e  are  the  crops  with  which  clover 
is  usually  planted,  but  many  good  farmers  now  prefer  to  sow 
the  seed  only  with  other  grass  seed.  Circumstances  must 
largely  determine  the  manner  of  seeding. 

Crimson  clover,  which  is  a  winter  legume,  usually  does 
best  when  seeded  alone,  although  r\-e  or  some  other  grain 
often  seems  helpful  to  it.  This  kind  of  clover  is  an  excel- 
lent crop  with  which  to  follow  cotton  or  corn.  It  is  most 
conveniently  sowed  at  the  last  culti\ation  of  these  crops. 

Common  red  clover,  which  is  the  standard  clover  over 
most  of  the  countr}-,  is  usually  seeded  with  timothy  or  with 
orchard  grass  or  with  some  other  of  the  grasses.  In  sowing 
both  crimson  and  red  clover,  about  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of 
seed  for  each  acre  are  generally  used. 

To  make  good  pastures,  white  and  Japan  clover  are  favor- 
ites. White  clover  does  well  in  most  parts  of  America,  and 
Japan  clover  is  especially  valuable  in  warm  Southern  climates. 
Both  will  do  well  even  when  the  soil  is  partly  shaded,  but 
they  do  best  in  land  fully  open  to  the  sun. 

Careful  attention  is  required  to  cure  clover  hay  well.  The 
clover  should  always  be  cut  before  it  forms  seed.  The  best 
time  to  cut  is  when  the  plants  are  in  full  bloom. 

Let  the  mower  be  started  in  the  morning.  Then  a  few  hours 
later  nm  over  the  field  with  the  tedder.  This  will  loosen  the 
hay  and  let  in  air  and  sunshine.  If  the  weather  be  fair  let 
the  hay  lie  until  the  next  day,  and  then  rake  it  into  rows  for 
further  drying.    After  being  raked,  the  hay  may  either  be  left 


« 


Fig.  233.    Crimson  Clover 


250 


FEED  STUFFS  251 

in  the  rows  for  final  curing  or  it  may  be  put  in  cocks.  If  the 
weather  be  unsettled,  it  is  best  to  cock  the  hay.  Many  farmers 
have  cloth  covers  to  protect  the  cocks  and  these  often  aid 
greatly  in  saving  the  hay  crop  in  a  rainy  season.  In  case 
the  hay  is  put  in  cocks,  it  should  be  opened  for  a  final  drying 
before  it  is  housed. 

Cowpeas.  The  cowpea  is  an  excellent  soil-enricher.  It 
supplies  more  fertilizing  material  to  turn  into  the  soil,  in  a 
short  time  and  at  small  cost,  than  any  other  crop.  Moreover, 
bv  good  tillage  and  by  the  use  of  a  very  small  amount  of  fer- 
tilizer, the  cowpea  can  be  grown  on  land  too  poor  to  produce 
any  other  crop.  Its  roots  go  deep  into  the  soil.  Hence 
they  gather  plant  food  and  moisture  that  shallow-rooted  plants 
fail  to  reach.  These  qualities  make  it  an  invaluable  help  in 
bringing  worn-out  lands  back  to  fertility. 

The  cowpea  is  a  warm-weather  legume.  In  the  United 
States  it  succeeds  best  in  the  south  and  southwest.  It  has, 
however,  in  recent  years  been  grown  as  far  north  as  Massa- 
chusetts, New  York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota,  but  in 
these  cold  climates  other  legumes  are  more  useful.  Cowpeas 
should  never  be  planted  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  past. 
Some  varieties  make  their  full  growth  in  two  months  ;  others 
need  four  months. 

There  are  about  two  hundred  varieties  of  cowpeas.  These 
varieties  differ  in  form,  in  the  size  of  seed  and  of  pod,  in  the 
color  of  seed  and  of  pod,  and  in  the  time  of  ripening.  They 
differ,  too,  in  the  manner  of  growth.  Some  grow  erect;  others 
sprawl  on  the  ground.  In  selecting  varieties  it  is  well  to 
choose  those  that  grow  straight  up,  those  that  are  hardy, 
those  that  fruit  early  and  abundantly,  and  those  that  hold 
their  leaves.  The  variety  selected  for  seed  should  also  suit 
the  land  and  the  climate. 


252  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

The  cowpea  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil.  It  thrives  best 
and  \-ields  most  bountifully  on  well-drained  sandy  loams.  The 
plant  also  does  well  on  clay  soils.  On  light,  sandy  soils  a 
fairlv  good  crop  may  be  made,  but  on  such  soils,  wilt  and 
root-knot  are  dangerous  foes.  A  warm,  moist,  well-pulverized 
seed-bed  should  always  be  pro\"ided.  Few  plants  equal  the 
cowoea  in  repavins:  careful  Dreoaration. 


If  this  crop  is  grown  for  hay.  the  method  of  seeding  and 
cultivating  will  differ  somewhat  from  the  method  used  when 
a  seed  crop  is  desired.  When  cowpeas  are  planted  for  hay 
the  seeds  should  be  drilled  or  broadcasted.  If  the  seeds  are 
small  and  the  land  somewhat  rich,  about  four  pecks  should 
be  sowed  on  each  acre.  If  the  seeds  are  com  para  ti\ely  large 
and  the  soil  not  so  fertile,  about  six  pecks  should  be  sowed  to 
the  acre.  It  is  safer  to  disk  in  the  seeds  when  they  are  sowed 
broadcast  than  it  is  to  relv  on  a  harrow  to  cover  them.    In 


FEED  STUFFS  253 

sowing  merely  for  a  hay  crop,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  mix 
sorghum,  com,  soy  beans,  or  millet  with  the  cowpeas.  The 
mixed  hay  is  more  easily  harvested  and  more  easily  cured 
than  unmixed  cowpea  hay.  Shortly  after  seeding,  it  pays  to 
run  over  the  land  lightly  with  a  harrow^  or  a  weeder  in  order 
to  break  any  crust  that  may  form. 

Mowing  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  stalks  and  the  pods 
have  finished  growing  and  some  of  the  lower  leaves  have 
begun  to  turn  yellow.  An  ordinar)^  mower  is  perhaps  the 
best  machine  for  cutting  the  vines.  If  possible,  select  only  a 
bright  day  for  mowing  and  do  not  start  the  machine  until 
the  dew  on  the  vines  is  dried.  Allow  the  vines  to  remain 
as  they  fell  from  the  mower  till  they  are  wilted  ;  then  rake 
them  into  windrows.  The  vines  should  generally  stay  in  the 
windrows  for  two  or  three  days  and  be  turned  on  the  last 
day.  They  should  then  be  put  in  small,  airy  piles  or  piled 
around  a  stake  that  has  crosspieces  nailed  to  it.  The  drying 
vines  should  never  be  packed  ;  air  must  circulate  freely  if 
good  hay  is  to  be  made.  As  piling  the  vines  around  stakes 
is  somewhat  laborious,  some  growers  watch  the  curing  care- 
fully and  succeed  in  getting  the  vines  dry  enough  to  haul 
directly  from  the  windrows  to  the  barns.  Never  allow  the 
vines  to  stay  exposed  to  too  much  sunshine  when  thev  are 
first  cut.  If  the  sun  strikes  them  too  strongly,  the  leaves  will 
become  brittle  and  shatter  when  they  are  moved. 

When  cowpeas  are  grown  for  their  pods  to  ripen,  the  seeds 
should  be  planted  in  rows  about  a  yard  apart.  From  two  to 
three  pecks  of  seeds  to  an  acre  should  be  sufficient.  The 
growing  plants  should  be  cultivated  two  or  three  times  with 
a  good  cultivator.  Cowpeas  were  formerly  gathered  by  hand, 
but  such  a  method  is  of  course  slow  and  expensive.  Pickers 
are  now  commonlv  used. 


254  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 

S:~.e  fsuTr.ers  use  the  covq>tz  crop  only  as  a  soil-enricher. 
Hence  mev  neither  gather  the  seeds  nor  cut  the  hay,  but 
plow  the  whole  crop  into  the  soil.  There  is  an  average  of 
about  foit>'-seven  pounds  of  nitrogen  in  each  ton  of  cowjjea 
vines.  Most  of  this  valuable  nitrogen  is  drawn  by  the  plants 
from  the  air.  This  amount  of  nitrogen  is  equal  to  that  con- 
tained in  9300  pounds  of  stable  manure.  In  addition  each 
ton  of  cowpea  vines  contains  ten  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  twenty-nine  pounds  of  potash. 

There  is  danger  in  plowing  into  the  soil  at  one  time  any 
bountiful  green  crop  like  cowpeas.  As  alread\'  explained  on 
page  10,  a  process  called  capillarity  enables  moisture  to  rise 
in  the  soil  as  plants  need  iL  Now  if  a  heavy  cowpea  crop 
or  any  other  similar  crop  be  at  one  plowing  turned  into  the 
soil,  the  soil  particles  will  be  so  separated  as  to  destroy 
capillarity.  Too  much  vegetation  turned  under  at  once  mav 
also,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  cause  fermentation  to  set 
in  and  "sour  the  land."  Both  of  these  troubles  may  be 
avoided  bj-  cutting  up  the  \Tnes  with  a  disk  harrow  or  other 
implement  before  covering  them. 

The  custom  of  planting  cowpeas  between  the  rows  at  the 
last  working  of  com  is  a  good  one,  and  wherever  the  climate 
permits  this  custom  should  be  followed. 

Vetches.  The  vetches  hax'e  been  rapidly  growing  in  favor 
for  some  }^ears.  Stock  eat  vetch  hay  greedily,  and  this  hay 
increases  the  flow  of  milk  in  dairy  animals  and  helps  to 
keep  animals  fat  and  sleek.  Only  two  species  of  vetch  are 
widely  grown.  These  are  the  tare,  or  spring  vetch,  and  the 
winter,  or  hairj^  vetch.  Spring  vetch  is  grown  in  comparatively 
few  sections  of  our  countr}-,  It  is,  however,  grown  widely  in 
England  and  northern  continental  Europe.  What  we  say  here 
wiH  be  confined  to  hair}^  vetch. 


FEED  STUFFS 


255 


After  a  soil  has  been  supplied  with  the  germs  needed  by 
this  plant,  the  hairy  vetch  is  productive  on  many  different 
kinds  of  soil.  The  plant  is  most  vigorous  on  fertile  loams.  By 
good  tillage  and  proper  fertilization  it  may  be  forced  to  grow 
rather  bountifully  on  poor  sandy  and  clay  loams.  Acid  or 
wet  soils  are  not  suited  to  vetch.  Lands  that  are  too  poor  to 
produce  clovers  will  frequently  yield  fair  crops  of  vetch.    If 


Fiu.  235.    Vetch 

this  is  borne  in  mind,  many  poor  soils  may  be  wonderfully 
improved  by  growing  on  them  this  \aluable  legume. 

Vetch  needs  a  fine  well-compacted  seed-bed,  but  it  is 
often  sowed  with  good  results  on  stubble  lands  and  between 
cotton  and  corn  rows,  where  it  is  covered  by  a  cultivator  or 
a  weeder. 

The  seeds  of  the  vetch  are  costly  and  are  brought  chiefly 
from  Germany,  where  this  crop  is  much  prized.  The  pods 
ripen  so  irregularly  that  they  have  to  be  picked  by  hand. 


2  56  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

In  northern  climates  early  spring  sowing  is  found  most  sat- 
isfactory. In  southern  climates  the  seeding  is  best  done  in 
the  late  summer  or  early  fall.  As  the  vetch  vines  have  a 
tendency  to  trail  on  the  ground,  it  is  wisest  to  plant  with  the 
vetch  some  crop  like  oats,  barley,  r)-e,  or  wheat.  These  plants 
will  support  the  vetch  and  keep  its  vines  from  being  injured 
by  falling  on  the  ground.  Do  not  use  r}-e  with  vetch  in  the 
South.  It  ripens  too  early  to  be  of  much  assistance.  If 
sowed  with  oats  the  seeding  should  be  at  the  rate  of  about 
twenty  or  thirty  pounds  of  vetch  and  about  one  and  a  half 
or  t^vo  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre.  \'etch  is  covered  in  the 
same  way  as  wheat  and  ne. 

Few  crops  enrich  soil  more  rapidly  than  vetch  if  the  whole 
plant  is  turned  in.  It  of  course  adds  nitrogen  to  the  soil  and 
at  the  same  time  supplies  the  soil  with  a  large  amount  of 
organic  matter  to  decay  and  change  to  humus.  As  the  crop 
grows  during  the  winter,  it  makes  an  excellent  cover  to  pre- 
vent washing.  IMany  orchard-growers  of  the  Northwest  find 
vetch  the  best  winter  crop  for  the  orchards  as  well  as  for 
the  fields. 

Soy,  or  Soja,  Bean.  In  China  and  Japan  the  soy  bean  is 
grown  largelv  as  food  for  man.  In  the  United  States  it  is 
used  as  a  forage  plant  and  as  a  soil-improver.  It  bids  fair  to 
become  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  legumes.  Like  the 
cowpea,  this  bean  is  at  home  only  in  a  warm  climate.  Some 
of  the  earlv-ripening  varieties  have,  however,  been  planted 
with  fair  success  in  cold  climates. 

While  there  are  a  large  number  of  varieties  of  the  so)-  bean, 
only  about  a  dozen  are  commonly  grown.  They  differ  mainly 
in  the  color,  size,  and  shape  of  the  seeds,  and  in  the  time 
needed  for  ripening.  Some  of  the  varieties  are  more  hair}- 
than  others. 


FEED  STUFFS 


257 


Soy  beans  may  take  many  places  in  good  crop-rotations, 
but  they  are  unusually  valuable  in  short  rotations  with  small 
grains.  The  grains  can  be  cut  in  time  for  the  beans  to  follow 
them,  and  in  turn  the  beans  can  be  harx'ested  in  the  early 
fall  and  make  way  for  another  grain  crop. 

It  should  always  be  remembered  that  soy  beans  will  not 
thrive  unless  the  land  on  which  they  are  to  grow  is  already  sup- 
plied, or  is  supplied  at  the  time  of  sowing,  with  bean  bacteria. 


Fig.  236.   Chinese  Soy  Beans 

The  plant  will  grow  on  many  different  kinds  of  soil,  but 
it  needs  a  richer  soil  than  the  cowpea  does.  As  the  crop  can 
gather  most  of  its  own  nitrogen,  it  generally  requires  only 
the  addition  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  for  its  growth  on 
poor  land.  When  the  first  crop  is  seeded,  apply  to  each  acre 
four  hundred  pounds  of  a  fertilizing  mixture  which  contains 
about  ten  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  four  per  cent  of  potash, 
and  from  one  to  two  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

^:.nted  for  hay  or  for  grazing,  mellow  the 

::-.  broadcast  or  drill  in  closety  about  one 

-T  -     :  -  r^  to  each  acre.    Cover  from  one  to 

:   allow  a  crust  to  form  over  the 

; : .:  :         :    reak  through  a  crust  well.   When 

-";  ■  :  :  —  fds.  a  half  bushel  of  seed  to  the 

^--    ;  ^-~  _:j;'.:.    Trie  plants  sh'i'uld  stand  in  the  rows 


from  four  to  six  ir.:  ws  should  be  from 

thirty  to  forty  indhc.:>  i;.,.iij  ^.mjl  a-ii...:i....  Never  plant  until 
the  sun  has  thoroughly  warmed  the  land.  The  bean  may  be 
sowed,  however,  earlier  than  cowpeas.  A  most  convenient 
time  is  just  after  com  is  planted.  The  rows  should  be  culti- 
vated often  enough  to  ke^  out  weeds  and  grass  and  to  keep 
a  good  dust  muldi,  but  the  cultivation  must  be  shallow. 

As  soy  beans  are  grown  for  hay  and  also  for  seed,  the  har- 
vesting will,  as  with  the  other  l^;ume5,  be  controlled  by  the 


FEED  STUFFS  259 

purpose  for  which  the  crop  was  planted.  In  harvesting  for 
a  hay  crop  it  is  desirable  to  cut  the  beans  after  the  pods 
are  well  formed  but  before  they  are  fully  grown.  If  the  cut- 
ting is  delayed  until  the  pods  are  ripe,  the  fruit  will  shatter 
badly.  There  is  a  loss,  too,  in  the  food  value  of  the  stems  if 
the  cutting  is  late.  The  ordinary  mowing-machine  with  a 
rake  attached  is  generally  the  machine  used  for  cuttins:  the 


Fig.  23S.    Sov  Beans  in  Corn 


Stalks.    The  leaves  should  be  most  carefully  preserved,  for 
they  contain  much  nourishment  for  stock. 

Whenever  the  beans  are  grown  for  seeds,  harvesting  should 
begin  when  three  fourths  of  the  leaves  have  fallen  and  most 
of  the  pods  are  ripe.  Do  not  wait,  however,  until  the  pods  are 
so  dr\-  that  they  have  begun  to  split  and  drop  their  seeds. 
A  slight  amount  of  dampness  on  the  plants  aids  the  cutting. 
The  threshing  mav  be  done  with  a  flail,  with  pea-hullers,  or 
with  a  grain-threshing  machine. 


26o 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGIXXERS 


The  beans  produce  more  seed  to  the  acre  than  cowpeas  do. 
Fort\-  bushels  is  a  high  \ield.  The  average  }"ield  is  between 
twenty  and  thirty-  bushels. 

Descriptive  Table 


C;.:; 

L;rx 

Rz  VA-  :<; 

Alfalfa 

Hay 

Perennial 

AD  animals  like  ii:  hogs 
eat  it  even  when  itisdrv. 

Red  clover 

Hay  and  pastore 

Perennial 

Best  of  the  clovers  for  hav. 

Alsike  clover 

Haj^  and  pasture 

Perennial 

Seeds  itself  for  twenty- 
years.  This  clover  is  a 
great  favorite  with  bees. 

Mammoth  clover 

Hay  and  pasture 

Perennial 

Best  for  green  manure: 

White  clover 

Pastnre 

Perennial 

Excellent  for  lawns  and 
bees. 

Japan  clover 

Pasture 

Perennial 

ExceDent  for  forest  and 
old  soils. 

Cowpea 

Hay  and  grain 

Annual 

Used  for  hay,  green 
manure,  and  pastures. 

Sov  bean 

Hay  and  grain 

Annual 

Often  put  in  sUo  with  com. 

Vetches 

Hay  and  soiling 

Annual 

Pasture  for  sheep  and 
swine.  With  cereals 
it  makes  excellent  hav 
and  soiling-food. 

CHAPTER   X 
DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

The  progress  that  a  nation  is  making  can  with  reasonable 
accuracy  be  measured  by  the  kind  of  Hve  stock  it  raises.  The 
general  mle  is,  poor  stock,  poor  people.  All  the  prosperous 
nations  of  the  globe,  especially  the  grain-growing  nations,  get 
a  large  share  of  their  wealth  from  raising  improved  stock. 
The  stock  bred  by  these  nations  is  now,  however,  verv'  dif- 
erent  from  the  stock  raised  by  the  same  nations  years  ago. 
As  soon  as  man  began  to  progress  in  the  art  of  agriculture 
he  became  dissatisfied  with  inferior  stock.  He  therefore 
bent  his  energies  to  raise  the  standard  of  excellence  in 
domestic  animals. 

By  slow  stages  of  animal  improvement  the  ugly,  thin- 
flanked  wild  boar  of  early  times  has  been  transformed  into 
the  sleek  Berkshire  or  the  well-rounded  Poland-China.  In 
the  same  manner  the  wild  sheep  of  the  Old  World  ha\e  been 
developed  into  wool  and  mutton  breeds  of  the  finest  excel- 
lence. By  constant  care,  attention,  and  selection  the  thin, 
long-legged  wild  ox  has  been  bred  into  the  bounteous  milk- 
producing  Jerseys  and  Holsteins  or  into  the  Shorthorn  moun- 
tains of  flesh.  From  the  small,  bony,  coarse,  and  shaggy 
horse  of  ancient  times  have  descended  the  hea\y  Norman, 
or  Percheron,  draft  horse  and  the  fleet  Arab  courser. 

The  matter  of  meat-production  is  one  of  vital  importance 
to  the  human  race,  for  animal  food  must  always  supply  a 
large  part  of  man's  ration. 

R  261 


262  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Live  stock  of  various  kinds  consume  the  coarser  foods, 
like  the  grasses,  hays,  and  grains,  which  man  cannot  use. 
As  a  result  of  this  consumption  they  store  in  their  bodies 
the  exact  substances  required  for  building  up  the  tissues  of 
man's  body. 

When  the  animal  is  used  b}"  man  for  food,  one  class  of 
foods  stored  away  in  the  animal's  body  produces  muscle ; 
another  produces  fat,  heat,  and  energ}-.  The  food  furnished 
by  the  slaughter  of  animals  seems  necessar}-  to  the  full  devel- 
opment of  man.  It  is  true  that  the  flesh  of  an  animal  v^ill 
not  support  human  life  so  long  as  would  the  grain  that  the 
animal  ate  while  growing,  but  it  is  also  true  that  animal  food 
does  not  require  so  much  of  man's  force  to  digest  it.  Hence 
the  use  of  meat  forces  a  part  of  man's  life- struggle  on  the 
lower  animal. 

When  men  feed  grain  to  stock,  the  animals  receive  in  return 
power  and  food  in  their  most  a\*ailable  forms.  Men  strengthen 
the  animal  that  they  themselves  may  be  strengthened.  One 
of  the  great  questions,  tlien,  for  the  stock- grower's  considera- 
tion is  how  to  make  the  least  amount  of  food  fed  to  animals 
produce  the  most  power  and  flesh. 

SECTION  LIII.    HORSES 

While  we  have  a  great  many  kinds  of  horses  in  America, 
horses  are  not  natives  of  this  countn*.  Just  where  wild  horses 
were  first  tamed  and  used  is  not  certainly  kno\ATi.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  in  earlv  ages  the  horse  was  a  much  smaller  animal 
than  it  now  is,  and  tliat  it  gradually  attained  its  present  size. 
Where  food  was  abundant  and  nutritious  and  the  climate  mild 
and  healthful,  the  early  horses  developed  large  frames  and 
hc2Lxy  limbs  and  muscles ;  on  the  other  hand,  where  food 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


263 


was  scarce  and  the  climate  cold  and  bleak,  the  animals  re- 
mained as  dwarfed  as  the  ponies  of  the  Shetland  Islands 

One  of  the  first  records  concerning  the  horse  is  found 
in  Genesis  xlix,  17,  where  Jacob  speaks  of  "an  adder 
that  biteth  the  horse  heels."  Pharaoh  took  "six  hundred 
chosen  chariots"  and  "with  all  the  horses  and  chariots" 


Fig.  z^g.   The  Family  Pti 

pursued  the  Israelites.  The  Greeks  at  first  drove  the  horse 
fastened  to  a  rude  chariot ;  later  they  rode  on  its  back,  learn- 
ing to  manage  the  animal  with  voice  or  switch  and  without 
either  saddle  or  bridle.  This  thinking  people  soon  invented 
the  snaffle  bit,  and  both  rode  and  drove  with  its  aid.  The 
curb  bit  was  a  Roman  invention.  Shoeing  was  not  practiced 
by  either  Greeks  or  Romans.  Saddles  and  harnesses  were  at 
first  made  of  skins  and  sometimes  of  cloth. 


264 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


Among  the  Tartars  of  middle  and  northern  Asia  and  also 
among  some  other  nations,  mare's  jnilk  and  the  flesh  of  the 
horse  are  used  for  food.  Old  and  otherwise  worthless  horses 
are  regularly  fattened  for  the  meat  markets  of  France  and 
Germanv.  \'arious  uses  are  made  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
horse's  bodv.   The  mane  and  tail  are  used  in  the  manufacture 


Fig.  240.   Perchekon  Horse  (a  Draft  Type) 

of  mattresses,  and  also  furnish  a  haircloth  for  upholstering ; 
the  skin  is  tanned  into  leather ;  the  hoofs  are  used  for  glue, 
and  the  bones  for  making  fertilizer. 

Climate,  food,  and  natural  surroundings  have  all  aided  in 
producing  changes  in  the  horse's  form,  size,  and  appearance. 
The  \-ar\ing  circumstances  under  which  horses  have  been 
raised  ha\-e  given  rise  to  the  different  breeds.   In  addition,  the 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


265 


masters'  needs  had  much  to  do  in  developing  the  t\pe  of 
horses  wanted.  Some  masters  desired  work  horses,  and  kept  the 
heavy,  muscular,  stout-limbed  animals ;  others  desired  riding 
and  driving  horses,  so  they  saved  for  their  use  the  light-limbed. 


Fig.  241 

Diagram  shows  the  proper  shape  of  the  fore  and  hind  legs  of  a  horse,   ^^■hen  the 
straight  lines  divide  the  legs  equally,  the  leg  action  is  straight  and  regular 

angular  horses  that  had  endurance  and  mettle.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  some  of  the  different  breeds  and  the  places 
of  their  development : 


I.    Draft,  or  Heavy,  Breeds 

1.  Percheron.  from  the  province  of  Perche,  France. 

2.  French  Draft,  developed  in  France. 

3.  Belgian  Draft,  developed  by  Belgian  farmers. 

4.  Clydesdale,  the  draft  horse  of  Scotland. 

5.  Suffolk  Punch,  from  the  eastern  part  of  England. 

6.  English  Shire,  also  from  the  eastern  part  of  England. 


266 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


II.    Carriage,  or  Coach,  Breeds 

1.  Cleveland  Bay.  developed  in  England. 

2.  French  Coach,  the  gentleman's  horse  of  France. 

3.  German  Coach,  from  Germany. 

4.  Oldenburg  Coach.  Oldenburg.  Germany. 

5.  Hackney,  the  English  high-stepper. 


III.    Light,  or  Roadster.  Breeds 

1 .  American  Trotter,  developed  in  America. 

2.  Thoroughbred,  the  English  running  horse. 

3.  American  Saddle  Horse,  from  Kentucky  and  Mrginia. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  form  and  type  of 
these  horses,  and  on  this  difference  their  usefulness  depends. 


Fig.  242.    Wide  Hock 

This  horse  stands  great  strains 
and  is  not  fatigued  easily 


Fig.  243.   Narrow  Hock 

This  horse  becomes  exhausted 
verv  easily 


The  draft  breeds  have  short  legs,  and  hence  their  bodies 
are  comparatively  close  to  the  ground.  The  depth  of  the  body 
should  be  about  the  same  as  the  length  of  leg.  All  draft 
horses  should  have  upright  shoulders,  so  as  to  pro\ide  an 
easy  support  for  the  collar.  The  hock  should  be  wide,  so  that 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


267 


the  animal  shall  have  great  leverage  of  muscle  for  pulling. 
A  horse  ha\-ing  a  narrow  hock  is  not  able  to  draw  a  hea\y 
load  and  is  easily  exhausted  and  liable  to  curb-diseases  (see 
Figs.  242  and  243). 

The  legs  of  all  kinds  of  horses  should  be  straight ;  a  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  ground  should 
divide  the  knees,  canon,  fetlock,  and  foot  into  two  equal  parts. 


u  ^ 

*g^  k'lf^ 

^^3B^^'^'    ' 

—^ 

■HMMMH^- 

fSk  .T . 

!-^C'. 

in 

^^^^r      ^^|H^^|h 

w^r  irif  i-^^^■  ■'.■  -i 

.  1 

y 

imm 

^M  If  '  sB 

g^ijg^  *^"ti^^^^mm  m 

■Bb-JK  n  -11111711 1WM  j>  r  t^ 

iM'  IW1I 1  1  IflflfWM'lllSMlMil 

Fig. 


The  Roadster  Type 


When  the  animal  is  formed  in  this  way  the  feet  have  room 
to  be  straight  and  square,  with  just  the  breadth  of  a  hoof 
between  them  (Fig.  241). 

Roadsters  are  lighter  in  bone  and  less  heavily  muscled ; 
their  legs  are  longer  than  those  of  the  draft  horses  and, 
as  horsemen  say,  more  "daylight"  can  be  seen  under  the 
body.  The  neck  is  long  and  thin,  but  fits  nicely  into  the 
shoulders.  The  shoulders  are  sloping  and  long  and  give 
the  roadster  abilit\-  to  reach  well  out  in  his  stride.    The 


268 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


head  is  set  gracefully  on  the   neck  and   should  be  carried 
with  ease  and  erectness. 

Every  man  who  is  to  deal  with  horses  ought  to  become,  by 
observation  and  study,  an  expert  judge  of  forms,  qualities, 
types,  defects,  and  excellences. 


Fig.  245.    Side  View  of  Legs 

The  diagram  shows  how  the  straight  Hnes  ought  to  cross  the  legs  of 
a  properly  shaped  horse 


The  horse's  foot  makes  an  interesting  study.  The  horny 
outside  protects  the  foot  from  mud,  ice,  and  stones.  Inside 
the  hoof  are  the  bones  and  gristle  that  serve  as  cushions 
to  diminish  the  shock  received  while  walking  or  running  on 
hard  roads  or  streets.  When  shoeing  the  horse  the  frog 
should  not  be  touched  with  the  knife.  It  is  very  seldom 
that  any  cutting  need  be  done.  Many  blacksmiths  do  not 
know  this  and  often  greatly  injure  the  foot. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


269 


Since  the  horse  has  but  a  small  stomach,  the  food  given 
should  not  be  too  bulky.  In  proportion  to  the  horse's  size, 
its  grain  ration  should  be  larger  than  that  of  other  animals. 
Draft  horses  and  mules,  however,  can  be  fed  a  more  bulky 
ration  than  other  horses,  because  they  have  larger  stomachs 
and  consequently  have  more  room  to  store  food. 


2.  1  7 

Fig.  246.    How  to  measure  a  Horse 

The  horse  should  be  groomed  ever)'  day.  This  keeps 
the  pores  of  the  skin  open  and  the  hair  bright  and  glossy. 
When  horses  are  working  hard,  the  harness  sliould  be 
removed  during  the  noon  hour.  During  the  cool  seasons 
of  the  year,  whenever  a  horse  is  wet  with  sweat,  it  should  on 
stopping  work,  or  when  standing  for  awhile,  be  blanketed, 
for  the  animal  is  as  liable  as  man  to  get  cold  in  a  draft  or 
from  moisture  evaporating  rapidly  from  its  skin. 


270  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

EXERCISE 

If  the  pupil  will  take  an  ordinary  tape  measure,  he  can  make  some  meas- 
urements of  the  horse  that  will  be  very  interesting  as  well  as  profitable. 
Let  him  measure  : 

1.  The  height  of  the  horse  at  the  withers,  i  to  i. 

2.  The  height  of  the  horse  at  croup,  2  to  2. 

3.  Length  of  shoulder,  i  to  3. 

4.  Length  of  back,  4. 

5.  Length  of  head.  5. 

6.  Depth  of  body,  6  to  6. 

7.  Daylight  under  body,  7  to  7. 

8.  Distance  from  point  of  shoulder  to  quarter.  3  to  3. 

9.  Width  of  forehead. 
10.  Width  between  hips. 

Note.  Man}-  interesting  comparisons  can  be  made  (i)  by  measuring 
several  horses;  (2)  by  studying  the  proportion  between  parts  of  the  same 
horse. 

Proportions  of  a  Horse 

1.  How  many  times  longer  is  the  body  than  the  head?  Do  you  get 
the  same  result  from  different  horses  ? 

2.  How  does  the  height  at  the  withers  compare  with  the  height 
at  the  croup .' 

3.  How  do  these  compare  with  the  distance  from  quarter  to  shoulder .'' 

4.  How  does  the  length  of  the  head  compare  with  the  thickness  of 
the  body  and  with  the  open  space,  or  "  daylight,"'  under  the  body? 


SECTION  LIV.    CATTLE 

All  farm  animals  were  once  called  cattle ;  now,  this  term 
applies  only  to  beef  and  dair}'  animals  —  neat  cattle. 

Our  improved  breeds  are  descended  from  the  wild  ox  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  have  attained  their  size  and  usefulness 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


271 


bv  care,  food,  and  selection.  The  uses  of  cattle  are  so  familiar 
that  we  need  scarcely  mention  them.  Their  flesh  is  a  part 
of  man's  daily  food  ; 
their  milk,  cream, 
butter,  and  cheese 
are  on  most  tables  ; 
their  hides  go  to 
make  leather,  and 
their  hair  for  plas- 
ter ;  their  hoofs  are 
used  for  glue,  and 
their  bones  for  fer- 
tilizers, ornaments, 
buttons,  and  many 
other  purposes. 

There    are    two 
main  classes  of  cat- 
tle —  beef  breeds  and  dair}-  breeds.    The  principal  breeds 
of  each  class  are  as  follows  : 


Fig.  247.    A  Pkize-Winner 


I.  Bec-f  Bn-c'ds 

Aberdeen-Angus,  bred  in  Scotland,  and  often  called  doddies. 

Galloway,  from  Scotland. 

Shonhom.  an  English  breed  of  cattle. 

Hereford,  also  an  English  breed. 

Sussex,  from  the  county  of  Sussex.  England. 


II.  Dairy  Breeds 

1.  Jersey,  from  the  Isle  of  Jersey. 

2.  Guernsey,  from  the  Isle  of  Guernsey. 

3.  A\Tshire.  from  Scotland. 

4.  Holstein-Frisian.  from  Holland  and  Denmark. 

5.  Brow-n  Swiss,  from  Switzerland. 


272  AGRICULTURE  FOR   BEGINNERS 

Other  breeds  of  cattle  are  Devon,  Dutch  Belted,  Red- 
Polled,   Kerr\',  and  West  Highland. 

In  general  structure  there  is  a  marked  difference  between 
the  beef  and  dair)-  breeds.  This  is  shown  in  Figs.  248,  249. 
The  beef  cow  is  square,  full  over  the  back  and  loins,  and 
straight  in  the  back.  The  hips  are  covered  evenly  with 
flesh,  the  legs  full  and  thick,  the  under  line,  or  stomach 
line,  parallel  to  the  back  line,  and  the  neck  full  and  short. 


Fig.  248.    Aberdeex-Angus  Cow  (a  Beef  Type) 

The  eye  should  be  bright,  the  face  short,  the  bones  of  fine 
texture,  and  the  skin  soft  and  pliable. 

The  dair\'  cow-  is  widely  different  from  the  beef  cow.  She 
shows  a  decided  wedge  shape  when  you  look  at  her  from 
front,  side,  or  rear.  The  back  line  is  crooked,  the  hip 
bones  and  tail  bone  are  prominent,  the  thighs  thin  and 
poorly  fleshed  ;  there  is  no  breadth  to  the  back,  as  in  the 
beef  cow,  and  little  flesh  covers  the  shoulders  ;  the  neck  is 
Ions:  and  thin. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


273 


The  udder  of  the  dairy  cow  is  most  important.  It  should 
be  full  but  not  fleshy,  be  well  attached  behind,  and  extend  well 
forward.    The  larger  the  udder  the  more  milk  will  be  given. 

The  skin  of  the  dairy  cow,  like  that  of  the  beef  breeds, 
should  be  soft  and  pliable  and  the  bones  fine-textured. 

The  Dairy  Type.  Because  of  lack  of  flesh  on  the  back, 
loins,  and  thighs,  the  cow  of  the  dairy  type  is  not  profitably 
raised  for  beef,  nor  is  the  beef  so  good  as  that  of  the  beef 


Fig.  249.   Jersey  Cow  (a  Dairy  Type) 

tvpes.  This  is  because  in  the  dair)--animal  food  goes  to 
produce  milk  rather  than  beef.  In  the  same  way  the  beef 
cow  gives  little  milk,  since  her  food  goes  rather  to  fat  than 
to  milk.  For  the  same  reasons  that  you  do  not  expect  a 
plow  horse  to  win  on  the  race  track,  you  do  not  expect  a  cow 
of  the  beef  type  to  win  premiums  as  a  milker. 

"  Scrub  "  cattle  are  not  profitable.  They  mature  slowly 
and  consequently  consume  much  food  before  they  are  able 
to  give  any  return  for  it.    Even  when  fattened,  the  fat  and 


274  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 

lean  portions  are  not  evenly  distributed,  and  "choice  cuts" 

are  few  and  small. 

By  far  the  cheapest  method  of  securing  a  healthy  and 

profitable  herd  of  dair}-  or  beef  cattle  is  to  save  only  the 

calves  whose  sires  are  pure-bred  animals  and  whose  mothers 

are  native  cows.    In  this  way  farmers  of  even  little  means 

can  soon  build  up  an  excellent  herd. 

Improving  Cattle.    The  fact  that  it  is  not  possible  for 

ever}-  farmer  to  possess  pure-bred  cattle  is  no  reason  why 

he  should  not  improve  the 
stock  he  has.  He  can  do 
this  by  using  pure-bred 
sires  that  possess  the  qual- 
ities most  to  be  desired. 
Scrub  stock  can  be  quickly 
improved  by  the  continu- 
ous use  of  good  sires.  It 
is  never  wise  to  use  grade, 
or  cross-bred,  sires,  since 
the  best  qualities  are  not 

fixed  in  them. 
Fig.  250.    He.\d  of  a  Galluwav  Cow  .     . 

^Moreover,  it  is  possible 

for  ever}-  farmer  to  determine  exactly  the  producing-power  of 

his  dair}-  cows.    When  the  cows  are  milked,  the  milk  should 

be  weighed  and  a  record  kept.   If  this  be  done,  it  will  be  found 

that  some  cows  produce  as  much  as  five  hundred,  and  some 

as  much  as  ten  hundred,  gallons  a  year,  while  others  produce 

not  more  than  two  or  three  hundred  gallons.   If  a  farmer  kills 

or  sells  his  poor  cow-s  and  keeps  his  best  ones,  he  will  soon 

have  a  herd  of  only  hea\-}-  milkers.    Ask  your  father  to  tn.' 

this  plan.   Read  eventhing  you  can  find  about  taking  care  of 

cows  and  impro\-ing  them,  and  then  start  a  herd  of  your  own. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


275 


Conclusions,  (i)  A  cow  with  a  tendency  to  get  fat  is  not 
profitable  for  the  dair\'.  (2)  A  thin,  open,  angular  cow  will 
make  expensive  beef,  (3)  "The  sire  is  half  the  herd."  This 
means  that  a  good  sire  is  necessary  to  improve  a  herd  of 
cattle.  The  improvement  from  scrubs  upward  is  as  follows : 
the  first  generation  is  one-half  pure  ;  the  second  is  three- 
fourths  pure  ;  the  third  is  seven-eighths  pure  ;  the  fourth 
is  fifteen-sixteenths  pure,  etc.    (4)  By  keeping  a  record  of 


Fig.  251.    HoLSTEiN  Cow 

the  quantity  and  quality  of  milk  each  cow  gives  you  can 
tell  which  are  profitable  to  raise  from  and  which  are  not. 
(5)  Good  food,  clean  water,  kindness,  and  care  are  necessary 
to  successful  cattle-raising. 

The  ownership  of  a  well-bred  animal  usually  arouses  so 
much  pride  in  the  owner  that  the  animal  receives  all  the 
care  that  it  merits.  The  watchful  care  given  to  such  an  ani- 
mal leads  to  more  thought  of  the  other  animals  on  the  farm, 
and  often  brings  about  the  upbuilding  of  an  entire  herd. 


276 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


SECTION   LV.    SHEEP 

The  sheep  was  perhaps  the  first  animal  domesticated  by 
man,  and  to-day  the  domesticated  sheep  is  found  wherever 
man  hves.  It  is  found  domesticated  or  wild  m  almost  evety 
climate,  and  finds  means  to  thrive  where  other  animals  can 
scarcely  live  ;  it  pro\ides  man  with  meat  and  clothing,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  profitable  and  most  easilv  cared- for  of  animals. 


Fig. 


A  \ 


Sheep  increase  so  rapidly,  mature  at  such  an  early  age, 
and  have  flesh  so  wholesome  for  food  that  nearly  eveiy-  farm 
should  have  its  flock.  Another  consideration  that  may  be 
urged  in  favor  of  sheep-raising  is  that  sheep  improve  the 
land  on  which  they  are  pastured. 

Sheep  are  docile  and  easily  handled,  and  they  five  on  a 
greater  diversit}'  of  food  and  require  less  grain  than  any  other 
kind  of  Hve  stock.  In  mixed  farming  there  is  enough  food 
wasted  on  most  farms  to  maintain  a  small  flock  of  sHeep. 


-77 


2/8  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Sheep  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  : 


I .  Fine-  J I  'ooled  Breeds 

1.  American  Merino. 

2.  Delaine  Merino. 

3.  Rambouillets. 

1 1 .  Medium- 1 J  'ooled  Breeds 

1.  Southdown. 

2.  Shropshire. 

3.  Horned  Dorset. 


4.  Hampshire  Down. 

5.  Oxford  Down. 

6.  Cheviot. 

III.  Long-  J I  'ooled  Breeds 

1 .  Leicester. 

2.  Lincohi. 

3.  Cotswold. 


The  first  group  is  grown  principally  for  wool,  and  mutton 
is  secondary ;  in  the  second  group,  mutton  comes  first  and 


Fig.  254.    In  the  Pasture 

wool  second  ;  in  the  third  group  both  are  important  con- 
siderations. Wool  is  nature's  protection  for  the  sheep.  Have 
you  ever  opened  the  fleece  and  observed  the  clean  skin 
in  which  the  fibers  grow }    These   fibers,  or  hairs,  are  so 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


279 


roughened  that  they  push  all  dirt  away  from  the  skin  toward 
the  outside  of  the  fleece. 

Wool  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  length  and  evenness 
of  the  fiber  and  the  density  of  the  fleece. 

EXERCISE 

1.  How  many  pounds  ought  a  fleece  of  wool  to  weigh  ? 

2.  Which  makes  the  better  clothing,  coarse  or  fine  wool .'' 

3.  Why  are  sheep  washed  before  being  sheared  .-* 

4.  Does  cold  weather  trouble  sheep  ?  wet  weather  ? 


SECTIOX   LVI.    SWIXE 

The  wild  boar  is  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
The  wild  hogs  are  the  parents  from  which  all  our  domestic 
breeds  have  sprung.  In  many  parts  of  the  world  the  wild 
boar  is  still  found.    These  animals  are  active  and  powerful, 


Fig.  255.   Which  will  you  raise? 

and  as  they  grow  older  are  fierce  and  dangerous.  In  their 
wild  state  they  seek  moist,  sandy,  and  well-wooded  places, 
close  to  streams  of  water.  Their  favorite  foods  are  fruits, 
grass,  and  roots,  but  when  pressed  by  hunger  they  will  eat 
snakes,  worms,  and  even  higher  animals,  like  birds,  fowls, 
and  fish, 

Man  captured  some  of  these  wild  animals,  fed  them  abun- 
dant and  nutritious  food,  accustomed  them  to  domestic  life, 


28o 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


selected  the  best  of  them  to  raise  from,  and  in  the  course 
of  generations  developed  our  present  breeds  of  hogs.  The 
main  changes  brought  about  in  hogs  were  these :  the  legs 
became  shorter,  the  snout  and  neck  likewise  shortened,  the 
shoulders  and  hams  increased  their  power  to  take  on  flesh, 
and  the  frame  was  strengthened  to  carry  the  added  burden 
of  flesh.  As  the  animal  grew  heavier  it  roamed  less  widely, 
and  as  it  grew  accustomed  to  man  its  temper  became  less  fierce. 


Fig.  256.   A  Pair  of  Pokkers 

Meat  can  be  more  cheaply  obtained  from  hogs  than  from 
any  other  animal.  W^hen  a  hog  is  properly  fed  and  cared  for 
it  vdW  make  the  farmer  more  money  in  proportion  to  cost 
than  any  other  animal  on  the  farm. 

The  most  profitable  t}-pe  of  hog  has  short  legs,  small  bones, 
straight  back  and  under  line,  hea^y  hams,  small  well-dished 
head,  and  hea\y  shoulders.  The  scrub  and  "  razorback " 
hogs  are  ven-  unprofitable,  and  require  an  undue  amount  of 
food  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.    It  requires  two  years  to  get 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


281 


the  scrub  to  weigh  what  a  well-bred  pig  will  weigh  when 
nine  months  old.  Scrub  hogs  can  be  quickly  changed  in 
form  and  type  by  the  use  of  a  pure-bred  sire. 

A  boy  whose  parents  were  too  poor  to  send  him  to  college 
once  decided  to  make  his  own  money  and  get  an  education. 
He  bought  a  sow  and  began  to  raise  pigs.  He  earned  the  food 
for  the  mother  and 
her  pigs.  His  hogs 
increased  so  rap- 
idly that  he  had  to 
work  hard  to  keep 
them  in  food.  By 
saving  the  money 
he  received  from 
the  sale  of  his  hogs 
he  had  enough  to 
keep  him  two  years  in  college.  Suppose  you  try  his  plan, 
and  let  the  hog  show  you  how  fast  it  can  make  money. 

We  have  several  breeds  of  swine.   The  important  ones  are  : 


Fig.  257.   A  Good  Type 


I.  Large  Breeds 

1.  Chester  White. 

2.  Improved  Yorkshire. 

3.  Tamworth. 

II.  Medium  Breeds 

1.  Berkshire. 

2.  Poland-China. 


3.  Duroc-Jersey. 

4.  Cheshire. 

III.  Small  Breeds 

1.  \'ictoria. 

2.  Suffolk. 

3.  Essex. 

4.  Small  Yorkshire. 


Hogs  will  be  most  successfully  raised  when  kept  as  little 
as  possible  in  pens.  They  like  the  fields  and  the  pasture 
grass,  the  open  air  and  the  sunshine.  Almost  any  kind  of 
food  can  be  given  them.  Unlike  other  stock,  they  will  devour 
greedily  and  tirelessly  the  richest  feeding-stuffs. 


282  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINXERS 

The  most  desirable  h<^  to  raise  is  one  that  will  produce 
a  more  or  less  even  mixture  of  fat  and  lean.   WTiere  only 

com  is  fed.  the  bodv  becomes  ven-  fat  and  is  r.?:  s"  desirable 


Fig.  2^S.   DoiXER  is  over 


for  food  as  when  middlings,  tankage,  cowpeas,  or  soy  beans 
are  added  as  a  part  of  the  ration. 

When  hogs  are  kept  in  pens,  cleanliness  is  most  important, 
for  only  by  cleanliness  can  disease  be  avoided. 


SECTION  LVII.    FAIO.I  POULTRY 

Our  geese,  ducks,  turke37S,  and  domestic  hens  are  all 
descendants  of  wild  fowls,  and  are  more  or  less  similar  to 
them  in  appearance. 

The  earhest  recorded  uses  of  fowls  were  for  food,  for 
fighting,  and  for  sacrifice.  To-da\'  the  domestic  fowl  has 
foin-  well-defined  uses  —  ^g-production,  meat-production, 
feather^roduodon,  and  pest-destruction. 

Hens  of  course  produce  most  of  our  eg^.  Some  duck 
e^s  are  sold  for  table  use.  Goose  and  duck  bod\-feathers 
bring  good  prices.  As  pest-destroyers  turke}^  and  chickens 
are  most  useful.    They  eat  large  numbers  of  bugs  and  worms 


sTANDAKU-UKED    FUWLo 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


283 


that  are  harmful  to  crops.  A  Uttle  proper  attention  would  very 
largely  increase  the  already  handsome  sum  derived  from  our 
fowls.  They  need  dr}-,  warm,  well-lighted,  and  tidily  kept 
houses.  They  must  have,  if  we  want  the  best  returns,  an 
abundant  supply  of  pure  water  and  a  variet\-  of  nutritious 
foods.  In  cold,  rainy,  or  snowy  weather  they  should  have 
a  sheltered  yard,  and  in  good  weather  should  be  allowed  a 
range  wide  enough  to  give  them 
exercise.  Their  bodies  and  their 
nests  must  be  protected  from 
ever\-  form  of  vermin. 

For  eggs,  the  Leghorn  vari- 
eties are  popular.  Some  hens 
of  this  breed  have  been  known 
to  lay  more  than  two  hundred 
eggs  in  a  year.  Specially  cared- 
for  flocks  have  averaged  eleven 
or  even  twelve  dozen  eggs  a 
year.  Farm  flocks  of  ordinarv' 
breeds  average  less  than  eight 
dozen.  Other  excellent  egg 
breeds  are  the  Spanish,  Anda- 
lusian,  and  Minorca. 

The  principal  so-called  meat  breeds  are  the  Brahma, 
Cochin,  and  Langshan.  These  are  ver)-  large,  but  rather 
slow-growing  fowls,  and  are  not  noted  as  layers.  They  are 
far  less  popular  in  America,  even  as  meat-producers,  than 
the  general-purpose  breeds. 

The  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red,  and 
Orpington  are  the  leading  general-purpose  breeds.  They  are 
favorites  because  they  are  at  once  good-sized,  good  layers, 
tame,  and  good  mothers.    The  chicks  of  these  breeds  are 


Fig.  259.    Cock 


284 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


hardv  and  thrift}-.  In  addition  to  these  breeds,  there  are 
many  so-called  fancy  breeds  that  are  prized  for  their  looks 
rather  than  for  their  value.  Among  these  are  the  Hamburg, 
Polish,  Sultan,  Silkie,  and  the  many  Bantam  breeds. 

The  leading  duck  breeds  are  the  Pekin,  Aylesbur)-,  In- 
dian Runner,  Musco\y,  Rouen,  and  Cayuga.    The  principal 

varieties  of  geese 
are  the  Toulouse, 
Emden,  Chinese, 
and  African. 

Among  the  best 
breeds  of  turkeys  are 
the  Bronze,  White 
Holland,  Xarragan- 
sett,  Bourbon,  Slate, 
and  Buff. 

Geese,  ducks,  and 
turkeys  are  not  so 
generall}'  raised  as  hens,  but  there  is  a  constant  demand  at 
good  prices  for  these  fowls. 

The  varieties  of  the  domestic-  hen  are  as  follows  : 

I. 


Fig.  260.    BruuLier 


II. 


Egg  Breeds 

III. 

General-Purpose  Breeds 

I.  Leghorn. 

I.  Plymouth  Rock. 

2.  Minorca. 

2.  Wyandotte. 

3.   Spanish. 

3.  Rhode  Island  Red. 

4.  Blue  Andalusian. 

4.  Orpington. 

5.  Anconas. 

Meat  Breeds 

1.  Brahma. 

2.  Cochin. 

3.  Langshan. 

4.  Dorking. 

IV. 

Fancy  Breeds 

1.  Polish. 

2.  Game. 

3.  Sultan. 

4.  Bantam. 

5.  Cornish. 

Fig.  261.   Breeding  Yards 


Fig.  262.    IxciBAToR 


2S5 


286  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

As  the  price  of  both  eggs  and  fowls  is  steadily  advancing, 
a  great  many  people  are  now  raising  fowls  by  means  of  an 
incubator  for  hatching,  and  a  brooder  as  a  substitute  for  the 
mother  hen. 

The  use  of  the  incubator  is  extending  each  year  and  is  now 
almost  universal  where  any  considerable  number  of  chicks 
are  to  be  hatched.  Doubtless  it  will  continue  to  be  used 
wherever  poultr^^-production  is  engaged  in  on  a  large  scale. 

The  brooder  is  employed  to  take  care  of  the  chickens  as 
soon  as  thev  leave  the  incubator. 


SECTION   LVIII.    BEE  CULTURE 

Stock-raisers  select  breeds  that  are  best  adapted  to  their 
needs.  Plant-growers  exercise  great  care  in  their  choice  of 
plants,  selecting  for  each  planting  those  best  suited  to  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  to 
be  grown.  Undoubtedly  a  larger 
yield  of  honey  could  be  had  each 
vear  if  similar  care  were  exercised 
in  the  selection  of  the  breed  of  bees. 
To  prove  this,  one  has  only  to 
compare  the  yield  of  two  different 
Fig.  263.  A  Carmolan  kinds.  The  common  East  Indian 
honey  bee  rarely  produces  more  than 
ten  or  twelve  pounds  to  a  hive,  while  the  Cyprian  bee,  which 
is  a  most  industrious  worker,  has  a  record  of  one  thousand 
pounds  in  one  season  from  a  single  colony.  This  bee,  be- 
sides being  industrious  when  honey  material  is  plentiful,  is 
also  ver)-  persevering  when  such  material  is  hard  to  find. 
The  Cyprians  have  two  other  ver}-  desirable  qualities.    They 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


287 


Stand  the  cold  of  winter  well  and  stoutly  defend  their  hives 
against  robber  bees  and  other  enemies. 

The  Italian  is  another  good  bee.  This  variet)-  was  brought 
into  the  United  States  in  i860.  While  the  yield  from  the 
Italian  is  somewhat  less  than  from  the  Cyprian,  the  Italian 
bees  produce  a  whiter  comb  and  are  a  trifle  more  easily 
managed. 

The  common  black  or  brown  bee  is  found  wild  and  domes- 
ticated throughout  the  countr}^  When  honey  material  is 
abundant,  these  bees 
equal  the  Italians  in 
honey-production,  but 
when  the  season  is 
poor,  they  fall  far  short 
in  the  amount  of  honey 
produced. 

The  purchase  of  a 
good  Cyprian  or  Italian 
hive  will  richly  repay 
the    buver.      Such    a 


N.^ 


Fig.  264.    A  Cakmulan  Drone 


colony  will  cost  more  at  the  outset  than  an  ordinan,-  colony, 
but  will  soon  pay  for  its  higher  cost  by  greater  production. 

A  beehive  in  the  spring  contains  one  queen,  several  hun- 
dred drones,  and  from  thirty-five  to  forty  thousand  workers. 
The  duty  of  the  queen  is  to  lay  all  the  eggs  that  are  to  hatch 
the  future  bees.  This  she  does  with  untiring  industr)-,  often 
laying  as  many  as  four  thousand  in  twent\--four  hours. 

The  worker  bees  do  all  the  work.  Some  of  them  visit  the 
flowers,  take  up  the  nectar  into  the  honey-sac,  located  in 
their  abdomens,  and  earn'  it  to  the  hive.  They  also  gather 
pollen  in  basketlike  cavities  in  their  hind  legs.  Pollen  and 
nectar  are  needed  to  prepare  food  for  the  young  bees.    In 


288 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 


the  hive  other  workers  create  a  breeze  by  buzzing  with  their 
wings  and  produce  heat  by  their  activit}-  —  all  to  cause  the 
water  to  evaporate  from  the  nectar  and  to  convert  it  into 
honey  before  it  is  sealed  up  in  the  comb.  After  a  success- 
ful day's  gathering  you  may  often  hear  these  tireless  workers 
buzzing  till  late  into  the  night  or  even  all  through  the  night. 
You  know  that  the  bees  get  nectar  from  the  flowers  of 
various  plants.  Some  of  the  chief  honey  plants  are  alfalfa, 
buckwheat,  horsemint,  sourwood,  white  sage,  wild  penny- 
royal, black  gum,  holly,  chestnut,  magnolia,  and  the  tulip 

tree.   The  }-ield  of  honey  mav  often 
be  increased  by  pro\"iding  special 
pasturage  for  the  bees.    The  linden 
tree,    for   example,    besides    being 
ornamental  and  valuable  for  timber, 
produces  a  most  bee-inviting  flower. 
Vetch,  clover,  and  most  of  the  leg- 
umes and  mints  are  valuable  plants 
to  furnish  pasture  for  bees.    Catnip 
may  be  cultivated  for  the  bees  and 
sold  as  an  herb  as  well. 
In   spraying   fruit   trees  to  prevent  disease  you    should 
always  avoid  sprapng  when  the  trees  are  in  bloom,  since  the 
poison  of  the  sprav  seriously  endangers  the  lives  of  bees. 

The  eggs  laid  by  the  queen,  if  they  are  to  produce  workers, 
require  about  t^vent^'-one  days  to  bring  forth  the  perfect  bee. 
The  newly  hatched  bee  commences  life  as  a  nurse.  A\'hen 
about  ten  days  old  it  b'egins  to  tr\'  its  wings  in  short  flights, 
and  a  few  days  later  it  begins  active  work.  The  life  of  a 
worker  bee  in  the  busy  season  is  only  about  six  weeks.  You 
may  distinguish  voung  exercising  bees  from  real  workers 
by  the   fact  that  they  do  not  fly  directly  away  on  emerging 


Fig. 


:65.    A  Cakniolax 

QUEEX 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


J89 


Fig.  266.   Good  Form  of  Hive 


from  the  hive,  but  circle  around  a  bit  in  order  to  make  sure 
that  they  can  recognise  home  again,  since  they  would  receive 
no  cordial  welcome  if  they  should  attempt  to  enter  another 

hive.  They  hesitate  upon 
returning  from  even  these 
short  flights,  to  make  sure 
that  they  are  in  front  of  their 
own  door. 

There  are  several  kinds  of 
enemies  of  the  bee  which  all 
beekeepers  should  know. 
One  of  these  is  the  robber 
bee,  that  is,  a  bee  from 
another  colony  attempting  to  steal  honey  from  the  rightful 
owners,  an  attempt  often  resulting  in  frightful  slaughter. 
Much  robben-  can  be  avoided  by  clean  handling ;  that  is, 
by  leaving  no  honey  about  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  stolen 
sweets.  The  bee  moth  is  another  serious  enemy.  The  lan-a 
of  the  moth  feeds  on  the  wax.  Keep  the  colonies  of  bees 
strong  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  overcome  this  moth. 

Oueenless  or  other\\-ise  weak  colonies  should  be  protected 
by  a  narrow  entrance  that  admits  only  one  bee  at  a  time, 
for  such  a  pass  may  be 
easily  guarded.  Fig.  267 
shows  a  good  anti-robber}- 
entrance  which  mav  be 
readily  pro^•ided  for  even- 
weak  colonv.  Mice  mav  be 


Fig.  267.   AxTi-RoBBixG  Entrance 
sf.  stationan-  piece  :  s,  slide  :  /.  pin,  or  stop 


kept  out  by  tin-lined  entrances.  The  widespread  fear  of  the 
kingbird  seems  unfounded.  He  rarely  eats  anything  but  drones, 
and  few  of  them.  This  is  also  true  of  the  swallow.  Toads, 
lizards,  and  spiders  are,  however,  true  enemies  of  the  honevbee. 


290  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

EXERCISE 

Can  you  recognize  drones,  workers,  and  queens?  Do  bees  usuall}' 
fimit  thdr  visits  to  one  kind  of  blossom  on  an}-  one  trip  ?  What  effect 
has  the  kind  of  flowo"  on  the  flavor  of  the  honey  produced?  What 
kinds  of  flowers  should  the  beekeeper  pro%'ide  for  his  bees?  Is  the 
kingbird  reall}-  an  enemy  to  the  bee? 


SECTION  LIX.    WHY  WE  FEED  ANIMALS 

In  the  first  place,  we  give  various  kinds  of  feed  stuffs 
to  our  animals  that  they  may  live.  The  heart  beats  all  the 
time,  the  lungs  contract  and  expand,  digestion  is  taking 
place,  the  blood  circulates  through  the  body  —  something 
must  supply  force  for  these  acts  or  the  animal  dies.  This 
force  is  derived  from  food. 

In  the  next  place,  food  is  required  to  keep  the  body  warm. 
Food  in  this  respect  is  fuel,  and  acts  in  the  same  way  that 
wood  or  coal  does  in  the  stove.  Our  bodies  are  warm  all  the 
time,  and  they  are  kept  warm  by  the  food  we  eat  at  mealtime. 

Then,  in  the  third  place,  food  is  required  to  enable  the 
body  to  enlarge  —  to  grow.  If  you  feed  a  colt  just  enough 
to  keep  it  ahve  and  warm,  there  wiU  be  no  material  present 
to  enable  it  to  grow ;  hence  you  must  add  enough  food  to 
form  bone  and  flesh  and  muscle  and  hair  and  fat. 

In  the  fourth  place,  we  feed  to  produce  strength  for  work. 
An  animal  poorly  fed  cannot  do  so  much  work  at  the  plow 
or  on  the  road  as  one  that  receives  all  the  food  needed. 

Both  food  and  the  force  produced  by  it  result  from  the 
activity^  of  plants.  B}-  means  of  sunlight  and  moisture  a 
sprouting  seed,  taking  out  of  the  air  and  soil  different  ele- 
ments, grows  into  a  plant.  Then,  just  as  the  plant  feeds 
on  the  air  and  soil  to  get  its  growth,  so  the  animal  feeds 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  291 

on  the  plant,  to  get  its  growth.  Hence,  since  our  animals 
feed  upon  plants,  we  must  find  out  what  is  in  plants  in  order 
to  know  what  animal  food  consists  of.  What,  we  are  now 
ready  to  ask,  are  plants  made  of .-' 

Chemists  have  found  that  in  studying  plants  there  are  five 
important  groups  of  substances  to  be  considered.  These  are 
protein,  carbohydrates,  fat,  mineral  matter,  and  water.  What 
is  each  of  these,  and  what  use  does  the  animal  make  of  each  ? 

First,  protein,  the  most  important,  must  be  considered. 
The  animal  food  called  by  this  queer  name  is  not  unknown 
to  you.  You  have  all  your  lives  seen  it  in  compounds  like 
the  white  of  an  egg,  lean  meat,  or  the  gluten  of  wheat.  It 
is  made  of  three  gases  (oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen)  and 
two  solid  bodies  (carbon  and  sulphur).  The  bodies  of  plants 
do  not  contain  very  much  protein.  Roots,  grass,  hay,  and 
straw  have  a  ven*-  small  amount  of  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
all  seeds  contain  a  great  deal  of  this  substance.  What  use 
do  the  animals  make  of  protein  ?  Animals  form  their  new 
blood,  their  muscles,  and  their  lean  meat  from  protein  food. 
It  is  easy,  then,  to  see  the  value  of  protein. 

In  addition,  this  substance  rebuilds  largely  the  waste  of 
the  body.  This  is  harder  to  understand.  Probably  every  boy 
has  made  a  snow  man,  and  knows  that  unless  he  can  add 
new  snow  regularly,  the  body  of  the  snow  man  will  soon  waste 
away.  All  animal  bodies  are  daily  using  up  the  materials  of 
the  body.  If  this  waste  is  not  made  up,  the  bodies  of  animals, 
like  the  body  of  the  snow  man,  soon  waste  away.  Now,  just 
as  the  boy  in  cold  climates  supplies  new  snow  to  his  snow 
man's  body  to  keep  it  whole,  so  nature  uses  protein  to  build 
up  the  wasted  materials  of  animal  bodies. 

Let  us  next  consider  the  carbohydrates.  Sometimes  the 
words  starchy  foods  are  used  to  describe  the  carbohydrates. 


2^2  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

You  have  long  known  forms  of  these  in  the  w  hite  material 
of  cx)m  and  of  potatoes.  The  carbohydrates  are  formed  of 
three  elements — carbon,  ox\gen,  and  hydrogen.  The  use 
of  these  carbohydrates  is  to  furnish  to  animal  bodies  either 
heat  or  energ\^  or  to  enable  them  to  store  fat. 

In  the  next  place,  let  us  look  at  the  fat  in  plant  food. 
This  consists  of  the  oil  stored  up  in  the  seeds  and  other  parts 
of  the  plant.  The  grains  contain  most  of  the  oil.  Fat  is  used 
by  the  animal  to  make  heat  and  energ\-  or  to  be  stored  aw^y 
in  the  body. 

The  next  animal  food  in  the  plant  that  we  are  to  think 
about  is  the  mineral  matter.  The  ashes  of  a  burnt  plant  fur- 
nish a  common  example  of  this  mineral  matter.  The  animal 
uses  this  material  of  the  plant  to  make  bone,  teeth,  and  tissue. 

The  last  thing  that  the  plant  furxdshes  the  animal  is  water 
—  just  common  water.  Young  plants  contain  comparatively 
large  quantities  of  water.  This  is  one  reason  why  they  are 
soft,  juicv,  and  palatable.  But,  since  animals  get  their 
water  chiefly  in  another  wa)%  the  water  in  feed  stuffs  is  not 
important. 

What  these  Coinocxos  do  ix  the  Body 

Protein  I'.:: 

1.  Forms   flesh,    bone,    blood,  i.  Furnishes  body  heat, 
internal  CHrgans,  hair,  and  milk.  2.  Furnishes  energy. 

2.  Maj-  be  used  to  make  faL  3.  Furnishes  body  faL 

3.  Ma\'  be  used  for  heaL 

4.  May   be    used    to    produce  yfineral  yfattcr 
energ\\  Furnishes  mineral  matter  for  the 

Carbohydrates  bones  in  the  body. 

1 .  Furnish  bodj-  heaL 

2.  Furnish  eneigy.  '^^'^'^ 

3.  Make  fat.  Supplies  water  in  the  body. 


CHAPTER  XI 

FARM  DAIRYING 

SECTION   LX.    THE  DAIRY  COW 

Success  in  dain,-  farming  depends  largely  upon  the  proper 
feeding  of  stock.  There  are  two  questions  that  the  dair\' 
farmer  should  always  ask  himself :  Am  I  feeding  as  cheaply 
as  I  can  ?   and.  Am  I  feeding  the  best  rations  for  milk  and 


Fi. 


IkS.      MlI,KIN>.-  I'lMl- 


butter  production  ?  Of  course  cows  can  be  kept  alive  and  in 
fairly  good  milk  flow  on  many  different  kinds  of  food,  but 
in  feeding,  as  in  everything  else,  there  is  an  ideal  to  be 
sought. 

R  293 


294 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXER5 


What,  then,  is  an  ideal  ration  for  a  dair\-  cow  ?  Before  trj-ing 
to  answer  this  question  the  word  7'ation  needs  to  be  explained. 
By  ration  is  meant  a  sufficient  quantit}'  of  food  to  support  prop- 
erlv  an  animal  for  one  day.  If  the  animal  is  to  have  a  proper 
ration,  we  must  bear  in  mind  what  the  animal  needs  in  order  to 
be  best  nourished.  To  get  material  for  muscle,  for  blood,  for 
milk,  and  for  some  other  things,  the  animal  needs,  in  the  first 


Fig.  269.   A  Dairy 

place,  food  that  contains  protein.  To  keep  warm  and  fat,  the 
animal  must,  in  the  second  place,  have  food  containing  carbohy- 
drates and  fats.  These  foods  must  be  mixed  in  right  proportions. 

With  these  facts  in  mind  we  are  prepared  for  an  answer 
to  the  question,  What  is  an  ideal  ration } 

First,  it  is  a  ration  that,  without  waste,  furnishes  both 
in  weight  and  bulk  of  dr\-  matter  a  sufficient  amount  of 
digestible,  nutritious  food. 


FARM  DAIRYING  295 

Second,  it  is  a  fation  that  is  comparatively  cheap. 

Third,  it  is  a  ration  in  which  the  milk-forming  food 
(protein)  is  rightly  proportioned  to  the  heat-making  and  fat- 
making  food  (carbohydrates  and  fat).  Any  ration  in  which 
this  proportion  is  neglected  is  badly  balanced. 

Xow  test  one  or  two  commonly  used  rations  b\-  these  rules. 
Would  a  ration  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  cotton-seed  hulls  be  a 
model  ration  ?  No.  Such  a  ration,  since  the  seeds  are  grown  at 
home,  would  be  cheap  enough.  However,  it  is  badlv  balanced, 
for  it  is  too  rich  in  protein  ;  hence  it  is  a  wasteful  ration.  Would 
a  ration  of  com  meal  and  com  stover  be  a  desirable  ration } 
This,  too,  since  the  com  is  home-grown,  would  be  cheap  for  the 
farmer  ;  but,  like  the  other,  it  is  badly  balanced,  for  it  contains 
too  much  carbohydrate  food  and  is  therefore  a  wasteful  ration. 

A  badly  balanced  ration  does  harm  in  t^vo  wa)s  :  first,  the 
milk  flow  of  the  cow  is  lessened  by  such  a  ration  ;  second, 
the  cow  does  not  profitably  use  the  food  that  she  eats. 

The  following  table  gives  an  excellent  dair\-  ration  for  the 
farmer  who  has  a  silo.  If  he  does  not  have  a  silo,  some 
other  food  can  be  used  in  place  of  the  ensilage.  The  table 
also  shows  what  each  food  contains.  As  you  grow  older,  it 
will  pay  you  to  study  such  tables  most  carefully. 


Digestible 

M.\TTER 

Feed  Stiffs 

Dry 
matter 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Cowpea  hay  =  15  pounds  ^  .     .     . 
Corn  stover  =  10  pounds     .     .     . 
Corn  ensilage  =  30  pounds .     .     . 
Cotton-seed  meal  =  2  pounds  .     . 

i3^5o 
5^95 

6.27 
I. S3 

1.62 
•17 

•27 
•74 

579 

1      3-24 

3-39 

•33 

.16 
.07 
.21 

.24 

Total  =  57  pounds    .... 

-7^55 

2. So 

12.75 

.6S 

^  Alfalfa  or  clover  hay  may  take  the  place  of  cowpea  hay. 


296  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Care  of  the  Cow.  As  the  cow  is  one  of  the  best  money- 
makers on  the  farm,  she  should,  for  this  reason,  if  for  no 
other,  be  comfortably  housed,  well  fed  and  watered,  and 
most  kindly  treated.  In  your  thoughts  for  her  well-being, 
bear  the  follo\A"ing  directions  in  mind : 

1.  If  you  are  not  following  a  balanced  ration,  feed  each 
day  several  different  kinds  of  food.  In  this  way  you  will 
be  least  likely  to  waste  food. 

2.  Feed  at  regular  hours.  '  Cows,  like  people,  thrive  best 
when  their  hves  are  orderly. 

3.  Milk  at  regular  hours. 

4.  Brush  the  udder  carefully  with  a  moist  cloth  before 
you  begin  to  milk.  Cleanliness  in  handling  makes  the 
milk  keep  longer. 

5.  Always  milk  in  buckets  or  cups  that  have  been  scalded 
since  the  last  using.  The  hot  water  kills  the  bacteria  that 
collect  in  the  dents  or  cracks  of  the  utensil. 

6.  Never  let  the  milk  pail  remain  in  the  stable.  Milk 
rapidly  absorbs  impurities.  These  spoil  the  flavor  and  cause 
the  milk  to  sour. 

7.  Xever  scold  or  strike  the  cow.  She  is  a  ner\-ous 
animal,  and  rough  usage  checks  the  milk  flow. 


^ 


FARM  DAIRYING 


297 


SECTION   LXI.    MILK,   CREAM,   CHURNING, 
AND   BUTTER 

Milk.  ]\Iilk  is,  as  you  know,  nature's  first  food  for  mam- 
mals. This  is  because  milk  is  a  model  food  —  it  contains 
water  to  slake  thirst,  ash  to  make  bone,  protein  to  make 
flesh  and  muscle,  and  fat  and  sugar  to  keep  the  body  warm 
and  to  furnish  energy. 

The  Different  Kinds  of  Milk.  Whole,  or  unskimmed, 
milk,  skimmed  milk,  and  buttermilk  are  too  familiar  to  need 
description.  When  a  cow  is  just  fresh,  her  milk  is  called 
colostJiim.  Colostrum  is  rich  in  the  ver\'  food  that  the  baby 
calf  needs.  After  the  calf  is  a  few  days  old,  colostrum 
changes  to  what  is  commonly  known  as  milk. 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  each  of  the 
different  forms  of  milk  : 


Composition  of  Milk 


Digestible  Matter  in  100  Pounds 


Dry 
matter 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Colostrum 
Milk  (unskimmed) 
Skimmed  milk    . 
Buttermilk      .     . 


25.4 
12.8 

94 
9.9 


17.6 
3-6 

2.9 

3-9 


2-7 
4.9 

5-2 

4.0 


3-6 
37 
1-3 


A  noticeable  fact  in  this  table  is  that  skimmed  milk  differs 
from  unskimmed  mainly  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  fat.  Hence, 
if  calves  are  fed  on  skimmed  milk,  they  should  have  in  addi- 
tion some  food  like  corn  meal  to  take  the  place  of  the  fat 
withdrawn.  A  calf  cannot  thrive  on  skimmed  milk  alone.  The 
amount  of  nourishing  fat  that  a  calf  gets  out  of  enough  milk 
to  make  a  pound  of  butter  can  be  bought,  in  the  form  of  lin- 
seed or  corn  meal,  for  one  or  two  cents,  while  the  butter-fat 


298 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


is  worth,  for  table  use,  thirtj-five  cents.  Of  course,  then, 
it  is  not  economical  to  allow  calves  to  use  unskimmed  milk. 
Some  people  undervalue  skimmed  milk ;  with  the  addition 
of  some  fatty  food,  it  makes  an  excellent  ration  for  calves, 
pigs,  and  fowls. 

Cieam.   Cream  is  simply  a  mixture  of  butter-fat  and  milk. 
The  butter-fat  floats  in  the  milk  in  little  dobe-shaued  bodies. 


or  globules.  Since  these  glolniles  are  lighter  than  milk,  they 
rise  to  the  surface.  Skimming  the  milk  is  a  mere  gathering 
tc^ether  of  these  butter-fat  globules.  As  most  of  the  butter- 
fat  is  contained  in  the  cream,  pains  should  be  taken  to  get 
all  the  cream  from  the  nulk  at  skimming  time. 

After  the  cream  has  been  collected,  it  must  be  allowed 
to  "  ripen  "  or  to  "  sour  "  in  order  that  it  may  be  more  easily 
churned-  Churning  is  only  a  second  step  to  collect  in  a  compact 
shape  the  fat  globules.  It  often  happens  that  at  chuming-time 


FARM  DAIRYING 


299 


the  cream  is  too  warm  for  successful  separation  of  the  glob- 
ules. Whenever  this  is  the  case  the  cream  must  be  cooled. 

The  Churn.    Revolving  churns  without  inside  fixtures  are 
best.   Hence,  in  buying,  select  a  barrel  or  a  square  box  churn. 


(^   \ 


Fic.  271.    A  Hand  Skpakator 

This  kind  of  churn  '"  brings  the  butter  "  by  the  falling  of  the 
cream  from  side  to  side  as  the  churn  is  revolved.  Never  fill 
the  churn  more  than  one-third  or  one-half  full  of  cream. 
A  small  churn  is  always  to  be  avoided. 

Churning.    The  proper  temperature  for  churning  ranges 
from  58°  to  62°  Fahrenheit.    Test  the  cream  when  it  is  put 


300 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


into  the  churn.  If  it  be  too  cold,  add  warm  water  until  the 
proper  temperature  is  reached  ;  if  too  warm,  add  cold  water 
or  ice  until  the  temperature  is  brought  down  to  62°.  Do  not 
churn  too  long,  for  this  spoils  butter.  As  soon  as  the  granules 
of  butter  are  somewhat  smaller  than  grains  of  wheat,  stop 
the  churn.  Then  draw  off  the  buttermilk  and  at  a  temper- 
ature as   low  as   50°  wash  the  butter  in  the  churn.    This 

washing  with  cold  water 
so  hardens  the  granules 
that  they  do  not  mass 
too  solidly  and  thus  de- 
stroy the  grain. 

Butter.  The  butter  so 
churned  is  now  ready  to 
be  salted.  Use  good  fine 
daity  salt.  Coarse  barrel 
salt  is  not  fit  for  butter. 
The  salt  can  be  added 
while  the  butter  is  still 
in  the  churn  or  after  it 
is  put  upon  the  butter- 
worker.  Never  work  by 
hand.  The  object  of  work- 
ing is  to  get  the  salt 
evenly  distributed  and  to  drive  out  some  of  the  brine.  It  is 
usually  best  to  work  butter  twice.  The  two  workings  bring 
about  a  more  even  mixture  of  the  salt  with  the  butter  and 
drive  off  mpre  water.  But  one  cannot  be  too  particular  not 
to  overwork  butter.  Delicate  coloring,  attractive  stamping 
with  the  dair}-  owner's  special  stamp,  and  proper  covering 
with  paper  cost  little  and  of  course  add  to  the  ready  and 
profitable  sale  of  butter. 


Fig.  2: 


A  Power  Churn 


FARM  DAIRYING  301 

Dairv  Rules 

Stable  and  Cows 

1 .  Whitewash  the  stable  once  or  twice  each  year :  use  land  plaster, 
muck,  or  loam  daily  in  the  manure-gutters. 

2.  On  their  way  to  pasture  or  milking-place,  do  not  allow  the  cows 
to  be  driven  at  a  faster  gait  than  a  comfortable  walk. 

3.  Give  abundance  of  pure  water. 

4.  Do  not  change  feed  suddenly. 

1;.  Keep  salt  always  within  reach  of  each  cow. 

Milking 

1.  Milk  with  dr}-  hands. 

2.  Never  allow  the  milk  to  touch  the  milker's  hands. 

3.  Require  the  milker  to  be  clean  in  person  and  dress. 

4.  ^lilk  quietly,  quickly,  thoroughly.  Never  leave  a  drop  of  milk 
in  the  cow's  udder. 

5.  Do  not  allow  cats,  dogs,  or  other  animals  around  at  milking-time. 

L  'tensils 

1.  Use  only  tin  or  metal  cans  and  pails. 

2.  See  that  all  utensils  are  thoroughly  clean  and  free  from  rust. 

3.  Require  all  cans  and  pails  to  be  scalded  immediately  after  they 
are  used.  < 

4.  After  milking,  keep  the  utensils  inverted  in  pure  air,  and  sun  them, 
if  possible,  until  they  are  wanted  for  use. 

5.  Always  sterilize  the  churn  with  steam  or  boiling  water  before  and 
after  churning.  This  prevents  any  odors  or  bad  flavors  from  affecting 
the  butter.    All  cans,  pails,  and  bottles  should  also  be  sterilized  daily. 

n 


302  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXXERS 

SECTION   LXII.    HOW  MILK  SOURS 

On  another  page  you  have  been  told  how  the  yeast  plant 
grows  in  cider  and  causes  it  to  sour,  and  how  bacteria  some- 
times cause  disease  in  animals  and  plants.  Now  you  must 
learn  what  these  same  living  fomis  have  to  do  \nth  tlie 
souring  of  milk,  and  maybe  \ou  will  not  forget  how  you  can 
prevent  your  milk  from  souring.  In  the  first  place,  milk 
sours  because  bacteria  from  the  air  fall  into  the  milk,  begin 


r 


o      M-vo  ^n  "     o  ou 


O  OQ 


o 


Fig.  27^.   Microscopic  ArrEAR.A.NCE  of  Pure  and  Impure  Milk 

At  the  left,  pure  milk :  at  the  right,  milk  after  standing  in  a  \rarm  room  for  a  few- 
hours  in  a  dirty  dish,  showing,  besides  the  fat-globules,  many  fonns  of  bacteria 

to  grow,  and  ven-  shortlv  change  the  sugar  of  the  milk  to  an 
acid.  When  this  acid  becomes  abundant,  the  milk  begins  to 
curdle.  As  vou  know,  the  bacteria  are  in  air,  in  water,  and 
in  bam  dust ;  they  stick  on  bits  of  hay  and  stick  to  the  cow. 
They  are  most  plentiful,  however,  in  milk  that  has  soured ; 
hence,  if  we  pour  a  little  sour  milk  into  a  pail  of  fresh  milk, 
the  fresh  milk  \nll  sour  ver\-  quickly,  because  we  have,  so 
to  speak,  "'seeded'"  or  "planted""  the  fresh  milk  with  the 
souring  germs.  No  one,  of  course,  ever  does  this  purposely 
in  the  dair\-,  vet  people  sometimes  do  what  amounts  to  die 
same  thing  —  that  is,  put  fresh  mOk  into  poorly  cleaned 


FARM  DAIRYING  303 

pails  or  pans,  the  cracks  and  corners  of  which  are  cozv 
homes  for  miUions  of  germs  left  from  the  last  sour  milk 
contained  in  the  vessel.  It  follows,  then,  that  all  utensils 
used  in  the  dair}-  should  be  thoroughly  scalded  so  as  to  kill 
all  germs  present,  and  particular  care  should  be  taken  to 
clean  the  cracks  and  crevices,  for  in  them  the  germs  lurk. 

In  addition  to  this  thorough  cleansing  with  hot  water,  we 
should  be  careful  never  to  stir  up  the  dust  of  the  bam  just 
before  milking.  Such  dust}-  work  as  pitching  hay  or  stover 
or  arranging  bedding  should  be  done  either  after  or  long 
before  milking-time,  for  more  germs  fall  into  the  milk  if 
the  air  be  full  of  dust. 

To  further  avoid  germs  the  milker  should  wear  clean 
overalls,  should  have  clean  hands,  and,  above  all,  should  never 
wet  his  hands  with  milk.  This  last  habit,  in  addition  to  being 
filthy,  lessens  the  keeping  power  of  the  milk.  The  milker 
should  also  moisten  the  parts  of  the  cow  which  are  nearest 
him,  so  that  dust  from  the  cow's  sides  mav  not  fall  into 
the  milker's  pail.  For  greater  cleanliness  and  safetv  manv 
milkmen  curr\-  their  cows. 

The  first  few  streams  from  each  teat  should  be  thrown 
away,  because  the  teat  at  its  mouth  is  filled  with  milk  which, 
haWng  been  exposed  to  the  air,  is  full  of  germs,  and  will  do 
much  toward  souring  the  other  milk  in  the  pail.  Barely  a  gill 
will  be  lost  by  thro\^•ing  the  first  drawings  away,  and  this  of 
the  poorest  milk  too.  The  increase  in  the  keeping  quality 
of  the  milk  will  much  more  than  repay  the  small  loss.  If 
these  precautions  are  taken,  the  milk  will  keep  several 
hours  or  even  several  days  longer  than  milk  carelessly 
handled.  By  taking  these  steps  to  prevent  germs  from  fall- 
ing into  the  milk,  a  can  of  milk  was  once  kept  sweet  for 
thirts'-one  davs. 


304  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

The  work  of  the  germ  in  the  dmry  is  not,  however,  con- 
fined to  souring  the  milk.  Certain  kinds  of  germs  give  to 
the  different  sorts  of  cheeses  their  marked  flavors  and  to 
butter  its  flavor.  If  the  right  germ  is  present,  cheese  or 
butter  gets  a  proper  flavor.  Sometimes  undesirable  germs 
gain  entrance  and  give  flavors  that  we  do  not  like.  Such 
germs  produce  cheese  or  butter  diseases.  "  Bitter  butter  "  is 
one  of  these  diseases.  To  keep  out  all  unpleasant  meddlers, 
thoroughly  cleanse  and  scald  ever}^  utensil. 

EXERCISE 

\Miat  causes  milk  to  sour  ?  WTiy  do  unclean  utensils  affect  the  milk  ? 
How  should  milk  be  cared  for  to  preA^ent  its  souring.'  Prepare  two 
samples,  one  carefully,  the  other  carelessly.  Place  them  side  by  side. 
Which  keeps  longer?  Why? 

SECTION  LXIII.    THE  BABCOCK  MILK-TESTER 

It  is  not  sufficient  for  a  farmer  or  a  dair\-man  to  know  how 
much  milk  each  of  his  c'ows  yields.  He  should  also  know 
how  rich  the  milk  is  in  butter-fat.  \\'ide-awake  makers  of 
butter  and  cheese  now  buy  milk,  not  by  the  pound  or  bv  the 
gallon,  but  b}-  the  amount  of  butter-fat  contained  in  each 
pound  or  gallon  of  milk.  A  gallon  of  milk  containing  four 
and  a  half  per  cent  of  fat  will  consequently  be  worth  more 
than  a  gallon  containing  only  three  per  cent  of  fat.  So  it 
mav  happen  that  a  cow  gi^"ing  only  two  gallons  of  milk  may 
pay  a  butter-maker  more  than  a  cow  giving  three  gallons  of 
milk.  Of  course  it  is  easy  to  weigh  or  measure  the  quantit}'  of 
milk  given  by  a  cow,  and  most  milkers  keep  this  record ;  but 
until  recent  years  there  was  no  way  to  find  out  the  amount  of 
fat  in  a  cow's  milk  except  by  a  slow  and  costly  chemical  test. 
Dain'men  could  only  guess  at  the  richness  of  milk. 


FARM  DAIRYING  305 

In  1890  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock  of  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station  invented  a  wonderful  little  machine  that  quickly 
and  cheaply  measures  the  fat  in  milk.  Few  machines  are 
more  useful.  So  desirous  was  Dr.  Babcock  of  helping  the 
farmers  that  he  would  not  add  to  the  cost  of  his  machine  by 
taking  out  a  patent  on  his  invention.  His  only  reward  has 
been  the  fame  won  by  the  invention  of  the  machine,  which 
bears  his  name.  This  most  useful  tester  is  now  made  in  vari- 
ous sizes  so  that  ever}'  handler  of  milk  may  buy  one  suited 
to  his  needs  and  do  his  own  testing  at  very  little  cost. 

The  operation  of  the  machine  is  very  simple.  Suppose 
that  the  members  of  the  class  studying  this  book  have  been 
asked  to  take  a  Babcock  machine  and  test  the  milk  of  a  small 
herd  of  cows.  They  can  readily  do  so  by  following  these 
directions  : 

While  the  milk  is  still  warm  from  the  first  cow  to  be  tested, 
mix  it  thoroughly  by  pouring  it  at  least  four  times  from  one 
vessel  to  another.  A  few  ounces  of  this  mixed  milk  is  then 
taken  for  a  sample,  and  carefully  marked  with  the  name  of 
the  cow.  A  number  is  also  put  on  the  sample,  and  both  the 
cow's  name  and  the  number  entered  in  a  notebook.  A  small 
glass  instrument,  called  a  pipette,  comes  with  each  machine. 
Put  one  end  of  the  pipette  into  the  milk  sample  and  the  other 
end  into  the  mouth.  Suck  milk  into  the  pipette  until  the  milk 
comes  up  to  the  mark  on  the  side  of  the  pipette.  As  soon 
as  the  mark  is  reached,  withdraw  the  pipette  from  the  mouth 
and  quickly  press  the  forefinger  on  the  mouth  end.  The 
pressure  of  the  finger  will  keep  the  milk  from  running  out. 
Then  put  the  lower  end  of  the  pipette  into  one  of  the  small 
long-necked  bottles  of  the  machine,  and,  lifting  the  finger, 
allow  the  milk  to  flow  gently  into  the  bottle.  Expel  all  the 
milk  by  blowing  through  the  pipette. 


3o6  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

The  next  step  is  to  add  a  strong,  biting  acid  known  as 
sulphuric  acid  to  the  test-bottle  into  which  you  have  just 
put  the  milk.  A  glass  marked  to  show  just  how  much  acid 
to  use  also  comes  with  the  machine.  Fill  this  glass  measure 
to  the  mark.  Then  pour  the  acid  carefully  into  the  test- 
bottle.  Be  sure  not  to  drop  any  of  the  acid  on  your  hands  or 
vour  clothes.  As  the  acid  is  heavier  than  the  milk,  it  will  sink 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  With  a  gentle  whirling  motion, 
shake  the  bottle  until  the  two  fluids  are  thoroughly  mixed. 
The  mixture  will  turn  a  dark  bro\Mi  and  become  ven-  warm. 

Xow  fill  the  other  bottles  in  the  same  way  with  samples 
drawn  from  different  cows.  Treat  all  the  samples  precisely 
as  you  did  the  first.  Do  not  forget  to  put  on  each  sample 
the  name  of  the  cow  giving  the  milk  and  on  each  test-bottle 
a  number  corresponding  to  the  name  of  the  cow. 

You  are  now  ready  to  put  the  test-bottles  in  the  sockets  of 
the  machine.  Arrange  the  bottles  in  the  sockets  so  that  the 
whirling  frame  of  the  machine  will  be  balanced.  Fit  the  cover 
on  the  machine  and  turn  the  handle  slowly.  Gradually  gain 
in  speed  until  the  machine  is  whirled  rapidly.  Continue  the 
turning  for  about  seven  minutes  at  the  speed  stated  in  the 
book  of  directions. 

After  this  first  turning  is  finished,  pour  enough  hot  water 
into  each  test-bottle  to  cause  the  fat  to  rise  to  the  neck  of 
the  bottle.  Re-cover  the  machine  and  turn  for  one  minute. 
Again  add  hot  water  to  each  bottle  until  all  the  fat  rises  into 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  and  again  turn  one  minute. 

There  remains  now  only  the  reading  of  the  record.  On 
the  neck  of  each  bottle  there  are  marks  to  measure  the  amount 
of  fat.  If  the  fat  inside  the  tube  reaches  only  from  the  low- 
est mark  to  the  second  mark,  then  there  is  only  one  per  cent 
of  fat  in  this  cow's  milk.    This  means  that  the  owner  of  the 


FARM  DAIRYING  307 

cow  gets  only  one  pound  of  butter-fat  from  each  hundred 
pounds  of  her  milk.  Such  a  cow  would  not  be  at  all  profit- 
able to  a  butter-seller.  If  the  fat  in  another  test-bottle  reaches 
from  the  lowest  mark  to  the  fourth  mark,  then  you  put  in 
your  record-book  that  this  cow's  milk  contains  four  per  cent 
of  butter-fat.    This  record  shows  that  the  second  cow's  milk 


F:c,.  zjj^.    l;.v;_u^K  Tl^ilk  and  how  to  use  n 

The  tester,  acid,  acid  measure,  test-bottle,  and  thermometer  at  bottom :  filling  the 
pipette  on  right :  adding  the  acid  and  measuring  the  fat  at  top 

}ields  four  pounds  of  fat  to  ever}-  hundred  pounds  of  milk. 
This  cow  is  three  times  more  valuable  to  a  butter-maker  than 
the  first  cow.  In  the  same  way  add  one  more  per  cent  for 
each  higher  mark  reached  by  the  fat.  Four  and  one-half  per 
cent  is  a  good  record  for  a  cow  to  make.  Some  cows  vield 
as  high  as  five  or  six  per  cent,  but  they  do  not  generally  keep 
up  this  record  all  the  year. 


3o8  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

The  Babcock  tester  shows  only  the  amount  of  pure  butter- 
fat  in  the  milk.  It  does  not  tell  the  exact  amount  of  finished 
butter  which  is  made  from  lOO  pounds  of  milk.  This  is 
because  butter  contains  a  few  other  things  in  addition  to 
pure  butter-fat.  Finished  and  salted  butter  weighs  on  an 
average  about  one  sbcth  more  than  the  fat  shown  by  the 
tester.  Hence  to  get  the  exact  amount  of  butter  in  every 
lOO  pounds  of  milk,  you  wiU  have  to  add  one  sixth  to  the 
record  shown  by  the  tester.  Suppose,  for  example,  you  took 
one  sample  from  600  pounds  of  mUk  and  that  your  test 
showed  4  per  cent  of  fat  in  ever)'  100  pounds  of  milk. 
Then,  as  you  had  600  pounds  of  milk,  you  would  have 
24  pounds  of  butter-fat.  This  fat,  after  it  has  been  salted 
and  after  it  has  absorbed  moisture  as  butter  does,  will  gain 
one  sixth  in  weight.  As  one  sixth  of  24  is  4,  this  new 
4  pounds  must  be  added  to  the  weight  of  the  butter-fat. 
Hence  the  600  pounds  of  milk  would  produce  about 
28  pounds  of  butter. 

EXERCISE 

1.  Find  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter  in  1200  pounds  of  milk 
that  tests  3  per  cent  of  butter-fat. 

2.  A  cow  yields  4800  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year.  Her  milk  tests  4 
per  cent  of  butter-fat.  Find  the  total  amount  of  butter-fat  she  jields. 
Find  also  the  total  amount  of  butter. 

3.  The  milk  of  two  cows  was  tested :  one  jnelded  in  a  year  6000 
pounds  of  mUk  that  tested  3  per  cent  of  fat:  the  other  yielded  5000 
p>ounds  that  tested  4  per  cent.  Which  cow  \-ielded  the  more  butter- 
fat?  What  was  the  money  value  of  the  butter  produced  by  each  if 
butter-fat  is  worth  twent)--five  cents  a  pound.' 


CHAPTER   XII 

MISCELLANEOUS 

SECTION  LXIV.    GROWING  FEED  STUFFS  ON  THE 

FARM 

Economy  in  raising  live  stock  demands  the  production 
of  all  '■  roughness  "  or  roughage  materials  on  the  farm.  By 
roughness,  or  roughage,  of  course  }ou  understand  that  bulky 
food,  like  hay,  grass,  clover,  stover,  etc.,  is  meant.  It  is 
possible  to  purchase  all  roughage  materials  and  yet  make  a 
financial  success  of  growing  farm  animals,  but  this  certainly 
is  not  the  surest  way  to  succeed.  Ever\-  farm  should  raise 
all  its  feed  stuffs.  In  deciding  what  forage  and  grain  crops 
to  grow  we  should  decide  : 

1.  The  crops  best  suited  to  our  soil  and  climate. 

2.  The  crops  best  suited  to  our  line  of  business. 

3.  The  crops  that  will  give  us  the  most  protein. 

4.  The  crops  that  produce  the  most. 

5.  The  crops  that  ^^^ll  keep  our  soil  in  the  best  condition. 

I.  The  crops  best  suited  to  our  soil  and  climate.  Farm 
crops,  as  ever}-  child  of  the  farm  knows,  are  not  equallv 
adapted  to  all  soils  and  climates.  Cotton  cannot  be  produced 
where  the  climate  is  cool  and  the  seasons  short.  Timothy 
and  blue  grass  are  most  productive  on  cool,  limestone  soils. 
Cowpeas  demand  warm,  dr)'  soils.  But  in  spite  of  climatic 
limitations,  Nature  has  been  generous  in  the  wide  variet}'  of 
forage  she  has  given  us. 

•^  309 


,IO 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Our  aim  should  be  to  make  the  best  use  of  what  we  have, 
to  improve  by  selection  and  care  those  kinds  best  adapted  to 
our  soil  and  climate,  and  to  secure,  by  better  methods  of  grow- 
ing and  curing,  the  greatest  yields  at  the  least  possible  cost, 

2.  The  crops  best  suited  to  our  line  of  business.  A  farmer 
necessarily  becomes  more  or  less  of  a  specialist ;  he  gathers 
those  kinds  of  live  stock  about  him  which  he  likes  best 
and  which  he  finds  the  most  profitable.  He  should,  on  his 
farm,  select  for  his  main  crops  those  that  he  can  grow  with 
the  greatest  pleasure  and  with  the  greatest  profit. 


4^^^T 


Filling  the  Barn 


Farm 


The  successful  railroad  manager  determines  by  practical 
experience  what  distances  his  engines  and  crews  ought  to 
run  in  a  day,  what  coal  is  most  economical  for  his  engines, 
what  schedules  best  suit  the  needs  of  his  road,  what  trains 
pay  him  best.  These  and  a  thousand  and  one  other  matters 
are  settled  by  the  special  needs  of  his  road. 

Ought  the  man  who  wants  to  make  his  farm  pay  be  less 
prudent  and  less  far-sighted  ?    Should  not  his  past  failures 


MISCELLANEOUS  31 1 

and  his  past  triumphs  decide  his  future  ?  If  he  be  a  dair)' 
farmer,  ought  he  not  by  practical  tests  to  settle  for  himself 
not  only  what  crops  are  most  at  home  on  his  land  but  also 
what  crops  in  his  circumstances  yield  him  the  largest  returns 
in  milk  and  butter  ?  If  swine-raising  be  his  business,  how 
long  ought  he  to  guess  what  crop  on  his  land  yields  him 
the  greatest  amount  of  hog  food  ?  Should  a  colt  be  fed  on 
one  kind  of  forage  when  the  land  that  produced  that  forage 
would  produce  twice  as  much  equally  good  forage  of  another 
kind  ?  All  these  questions  the  prudent  farmer  should  answer 
promptly  and  in  the  light  of  wise  experiments. 

3.  The  crops  that  li- ill  give  us  the  most  protein.  It  is  the 
farmer's  business  to  grow  all  the  grass  and  forage  tliat  his  farm 
animals  need.  He  ought  never  to  be  obliged  to  purchase  a 
bale  of  forage.  ^Moreover,  he  should  grow  mainly  those  crops 
that  are  rich  in  protein  materials,  for  example,  cowpeas, 
alfalfa,  and  clover.  If  such  crops  are  produced  on  the  farm, 
there  will  be  little  need  of  buying  so  much  cotton-seed  meal, 
corn,  and  bran  for  feeding  purposes. 

4.  TJie  erops  that  produce  the  most.  We  often  call  a  crop 
a  crop  without  considering  how  much  it  yields.  This  is  a 
mistake.  We  ought  to  grow,  when  we  have  choice  of  two 
crops,  the  one  that  is  the  best  and  the  most  productive  on  the 
farm.  Average  corn,  for  instance,  yields  on  an  acre  at  least 
twice  the  quantity  of  feeding-material  that  timothy  does. 

5.  Tiic  crops  that  loill  keep  our  soil  in  the  best  conditioji. 
A  good  farmer  should  always  be  thinking  of  how  to  improve 
his  soil.  He  wants  his  land  to  support  him  and  to  maintain 
his  children  after  he  is  dead. 

Since  coupeas,  clover,  and  alfalfa  add  atmospheric  nitrogen 
to  the  soil  and  at  the  same  time  are  the  best  feeding-materials, 
it  follows  that  these  crops  should  hold  an  important  place  in 


312  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

even-  system  of  crop-rotation.  By  proper  rotating,  by  proper 
terracing,  and  by  proper  drainage,  land  may  be  made  to  retain 
its  fertilit\-  for  generations. 

EXERCISE 

1.  Wliy  are  cowpeas,  clover,  and  aifalfa  so  important  to  the  fanner? 

2.  A\~hat  is  meant  by  the  protein  of  a  food? 

3.  Why  is  it  better  to  feed  the  farm  crops  to  animals  on  the  farm 
rather  than  to  sell  these  crops  ? 


SECTION   LXV.    FAR:^I  TOOLS  -\ND   MACHINES 

The  drudgen-  of  farm  life  is  being  lessened  from  year 
to  year  by  the  invention  or  improvement  of  farm  tools  and 
machines.  Perhaps  some  of  you  knovF  how  tiresome  was 
the  old  uj>-and-down  chum  dasher  that  has  now  generall}' 
given  place  to  the  "  quick-coming "  chums.  The  toothed, 
horse-drawn  culti^^tor  has  nearly  displaced  "  the  man  with 
the  hoe,"  while  the  scj-the,  slow  and  back-breaking,  is  everv- 
where  getting  out  of  the  way  of  the  mowing-machine  and 
the  horserake.  The  old  heavy,  sweat-drawing  grain-cradle  is 
slinking  into  the  backwoods,  and  in  its  place  we  have  the 
horse-drawn  or  steam-drawn  har\-ester  that  cuts  and  binds 
the  grain,  and  even  threshes  and  measures  it  at  one  opera- 
tion. Instead  of  the  plowman's  wearily  making  one  furrow 
at  a  time,  the  gang-plows  of  the  plains  cut  many  furrows  at 
one  time,  and  instead  of  walking  the  plowman  rides.  The 
shredder  and  busker  turns  the  hitherto  useless  cornstalk  into 
food,  and  at  the  same  time  husks,  or  shucks,  the  com. 

The  farmer  of  the  futiu-e  must  know  three  things  well : 
first,  what  machines  he  can  profitably  use  ;  second,  how  to  man- 
age these  machines  ;  third,  how  to  care  for  these  machines. 


313 


Fig.  27S.   The  Harvester  at  Work 


Fig.  279.   In  Need  uf  Impkuvemext 


314 


MISCELLANEOUS  315 

The  machinerv'  that  makes  farming  so  much  more  eco- 
nomical and  that  makes  the  farmer's  Hfe  so  much  easier  and 
more  comfortable  is  too  complicated  to  be  put  into  the  hands 
of  bunglers  who  will  soon  destroy  it,  and  it  is  too  costly  to  be 
left  in  the  fields  or  under  trees  to  rust  and  rot. 

If  it  is  not  convenient  for  ever}'  farmer  to  have  a  separate 
tool-house,  he  should  at  least  set  apart  a  room  in  his  bam,  or 
a  shed  for  storing  his  tools  and  machines.  As  soon  as  a 
plow,  harrow,  cultivator  —  indeed  any  tool  or  machine  —  has 
finished  its  share  of  work  for  the  season,  it  should  receive 
whatever  attention  it  needs  to  prevent  rusting,  and  should 
be  carefully  housed. 

Such  care,  which  is  neither  costly  nor  burdensome,  will 
add  many  years  to  the  life  of  a  machine. 

SECTION  LXVL    LIMING  THE  LAND 

Occasionall}-,  when  a  cook  puts  too  much  vinegar  in  a  salad, 
the  dish  becomes  so  sour  that  it  is  unfit  to  eat.  The  vinegar 
which  the  cook  uses  belongs  to  a  large  group  of  compounds 
known  as  acids.  The  acids  are  common  in  nature.  They 
have  the  power  not  only  of  making  salads  sour  but  also  of 
making  land  sour.  Frequently  land  becomes  so  sour  from 
acids  forming  in  it  that  it  will  not  bear  its  usual  crops. 
The  acids  must  then  be  removed  or  the  land  will  become 
useless. 

The  land  may  be  soured  in  several  ways.  Whenever  a  large 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  decays  in  land,  acids  are  formed, 
and  at  times  sourness  of  the  soil  results.  Often  soils  sour 
because  they  are  not  well  drained  or  because,  from  lack  of 
proper  tillage,  air  cannot  make  its  way  into  the  soil.  Some- 
times all  these  causes  may  combine  to  produce  sourness. 


3i6  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Since  most  crops  cannot  thrive  on  very  sour  soil,  the  farmer 
must  find  some  method  of  making  his  land  sweet  again. 

So  far  as  we  now  know,  liming  the  land  is  the  cheapest 
and  surest  way  of  overcoming  the  sourness.  In  addition  to 
sweetening  the  soil  by  overcoming  the  acids,  lime  aids  the 
land  in  other  ways  :  it  quickens  the  growth  of  helpful  bac- 
teria ;  it  loosens  stiff,  heavy  clay  soils  and  thereby  fits  them 
for  easier  tillage  ;  it  indirectly  sets  free  the  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  so  much  needed  by  plants  ;  and  it  increases 
the  capillarity  of  soils. 

However,  too  much  must  not  be  expected  of  lime.  Often 
a  farmer's  yield  is  so  increased  after  he  has  scattered  lime 
over  his  fields  that  he  thinks  that  lime  alone  will  keep  his 
land  fertile.  This  belief  explains  the  saying,  "  Lime  enriches 
the  father  but  beggars  the  son."  The  continued  use  of  lime 
without  other  fertilization  will  indeed  leave  poor  land  for  the 
son.  Lime  is  just  as  necessary  to  plant  growth  as  the  potash 
and  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  about  which  we  hear  so 
much,  but  it  cannot  take  the  place  of  these  plant  foods.  Its 
duty  is  to  aid,  not  to  displace  them. 

We  can  tell  by  the  taste  when  salads  are  too  sour ;  it  is 
more  difficult  to  find  out  whether  land  is  sour.  There  are, 
however,  some  methods  that  will  help  to  determine  the 
sourness  of  the  soil. 

In  the  first  place,  if  land  is  unusually  sour,  you  can  deter- 
mine this  fact  by  a  simple  test.  Buy  a  pennyworth  of  blue 
litmus  paper  from  a  drug  store.  Mix  some  of  the  suspected 
soil  with  a  little  water  and  bury  the  litmus  paper  in  the 
mixture.    If  the  paper  turns  red  the  soil  is  sour. 

In  the  second  place,  the  leguminous  crops  are  fond  of  lime. 
Clover  and  vetch  remove  so  much  lime  from  the  soil  that 
they  are  often  called  lime  plants.    If  clover  and  vetch  refuse 


MISCELLANEOUS  317 

to  grow  on  land  on  which  they  formerly  flourished,  it  is  gen- 
erall}-,  though  not  always,  a  sign  that  the  land  needs  lime. 

In  the  third  place,  when  water  grasses  and  certain  weeds 
spring  up  on  land,  that  land  is  usually  acid,  and  lime  will  be 
helpful.  Moreover,  fields  adjoining  land  on  which  cranberries, 
raspberries,  blackberries,  or  gallberries  are  growing  wild,  may 
always  be  suspected  of  more  or  less  sourness. 

Four  forms  of  lime  are  used  on  land.  These,  each  called 
by  different  names,  are  as  follows  : 

First,  quicklime,  which  is  also  called  burnt  lime,  caustic 
lime,  builders'  lime,  rock  lime,  and  unslaked  lime. 

Second,  air-slaked  lime,  which  is  also  known  as  carbonate 
of  lime,  agricultural  lime,  marl,  and  limestone. 

Third,  water-slaked,  or  hydrated,  lime. 

Fourth,  land  plaster,  or  g}-psum.  This  form  of  lime  is 
known  to  the  chemists  as  sulphate  of  lime.  Do  not  forget 
that  this  last  form  is  never  to  be  used  on  sour  lands.  We 
shall  therefore  not  consider  it  further. 

Air-slaked  lime  is  simply  quicklime  which  has  taken  from 
the  air  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxide.  This  is  the  same  gas  that 
you  breathe  out  from  your  lungs. 

Water-slaked  lime  is  quicklime  to  which  water  has  been 
added.  In  other  words,  both  of  these  are  merely  weakened 
forms  of  quicklime.  One  hundred  pounds  of  quicklime  is 
equal  in  richness  to  132  pounds  of  water-slaked  lime  and 
to  17S  pounds  of  air-slaked  lime.  These  figures  should  be 
remembered  by  a  farmer  when  he  is  buying  lime.  If  he  can 
buy  a  fair  grade  of  quicklime  delivered  at  his  railway  station 
for  S5.00  a  ton,  he  cannot  afford  to  pay  more  than  S3. 7 5  a 
ton  for  water-slaked  lime,  nor  more  than  $2.75  for  air-slaked 
lime  of  equal  grade.  Quicklime  should  always  be  slaked 
before  it  is  applied  to  the  soil. 


3l8  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

As  a  rule  lime  should  be  spread  broadcast  and  then  har- 
rowed or  disked  thoroughly  into  the  soil.  This  is  best  done 
after  the  ground  has  been  plowed.  For  pastures  or  meadows 
air-slaked  lime  is  used  as  a  top-dressing.  When  air-slaked  lime 
is  used  it  may  be  spread  broadcast  in  the  spring ;  the  other 
forms  should  be  apphed  in  the  fall  or  in  the  early  winter. 


SECTION  LX\'II.    BIRDS 

What  do  birds  do  in  the  world .'  is  an  important  question 
for  us  to  think  about.  First,  we  must  gain  by  observation 
and  by  personal  acquaintance  with  the  U\-ing  birds  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  work  and  their  way  of  doing  it.  In  getting  this 
knowledge,  let  us  also  consider  what  we  can  do  for  our  birds 
to  render  their  work  as  complete  and  effective  as  possible. 

Think  of  what  the  birds  are  doing  on  even*  farm,  in  even- 
garden,  and  about  even-  home  in  the  land.  Think  of  the 
milhons  of  beautiful  wings,  of  the  graceful  and  attractive 
figures,  of  the  cunning  nests,  and  of  the  singing  throats! 
Do  you  think  that  the  whole  senice  of  the  birds  is  to  be 
beautiful,  to  sing  charmingly,  and  to  rear  their  Utde  ones  ? 
By  no  means  is  this  their  chief  service  to  man.  Aside  from 
these  services  the  greatest  work  of  birds  is  to  destroy  insects. 
It  is  one  of  the  wise  provisions  of  nature  that  many  of  the 
most  brilliandy  winged  and  most  enchanting  songsters  are 
our  most  practical  friends. 

Not  all  birds  feed  on  insects  and  animals ;  but  even 
those  that  eat  but  a  small  amount  of  insect  food  may  still 
destroy  insects  that  would  have  damaged  fruit  and  crops 
much  more  than  the  birds  themselves  do. 

As  to  their  food,  birds  are  divided  into  three  general 
classes.    First,  those  that  live  whoUy  or  almost  whoUv  on 


MISCELLANEOUS 


319 


insects.  These  are  called  insectivorous  birds.  Chief  among 
these  are  the  warblers,  cuckoos,  swallows,  martins,  flycatchers, 
nighthawks.  whippoorwills,  swifts,  and  humming-birds.  W'e 
cannot  have  too  many  of  these  birds.  They  should  be 
encouraged  and  protected.  They  should  be  supplied  with 
shelter  and  water. 

Birds  of  the  second  class 
feed  by  preference  on  fruits, 
nuts,  and  grain.  The  blue- 
bird, robin,  wood  thrush, 
mocking-bird,  catbird,  chick- 
adee, cedar-bird,  meadow  lark, 
oriole,  jay,  crow,  and  wood- 
pecker belong  to  this  group. 
These  birds  never  fail  to  per- 
form a  service  for  us  by  de- 
vouring many  weed  seeds. 

The  third  class  is  knoun 
as  the  hard-billed  birds.  It 
includes  those  birds  which 
live  principally  on  seeds  and 
grain  —  the   canan,-,   goldfinch,   sparrow,   and  some   others. 

Birds  that  come  early,  like  the  bluebird,  robin,  and  red- 
wing, are  of  special  service  in  destroying  insects  before  the 
insects  lay  their  eggs  for  the  season. 

The  robins  on  the  lawn  search  out  the  caterpillars  and  cut- 
worms. The  chipping  sparrow  and  the  wren  in  the  shrubber\^ 
look  out  for  all  kinds  of  insects.  They  watch  over  the  orchard 
and  feed  freely  on  the  enemies  of  the  apple  and  other  fruit 
trees.  The  trunks  of  these  trees  are  often  attacked  bv  borers, 
which  gnaw  holes  in  the  bark  and  wood,  and  often  cause 
the  death  of  the  trees.    The  woodpeckers  hunt  for  these 


Fig.  2S0.  A  Kingbird 


!20 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


appetizing  borers  and  by  means  of  their  barbed  tongues  bring 
them  from  their  hiding-places.  On  the  outside  of  the  bark 
of  the  trunk  and  branches  the  bark  hce  work.  These  are 
devoured  by  the  nuthatches,  creepers,  and  chickadees. 

During  the  winter  the  bark  is  the  hiding-place  for  hiber- 
nating insects,  which,  like  plant  lice,  feed  in  summer  on  the 

leaves.  Throughout  the 
winter  a  single  chickadee 
will  destroy  great  num- 
bers of  the  eggs  of  tlie 
cankerworm  moth  and 
of  the  plant  louse.  The 
blackbirds,  meadow  larks, 
crows,  quail,  and  sparrows 
are  the  gi'eat  protectors 
of  the  meadow  and  field 
crops.  These  birds  feed 
on  the  army  wonns  and 
cutworms  that  do  so 
much  injury  to  the  young 
shoots  ;  thev  also  destroy 
the  chinch  bug  and  the 
grasshopper,  both  of  which  feed  on  cultivated  plants. 

A  count  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  animals  shows  that 
insects  make  up  nine  tenths  of  them.  Hence  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  if  something  did  not  check  their  increase  they  would  soon 
almost  overrun  the  earth.  Our  forests  and  orchards  furnish 
homes  and  breeding-places  for  most  of  these  insects.  Suppose 
the  injurious  insects  were  allowed  to  multiply  unchecked  in 
the  forests,  their  numbers  would  so  increase  that  they  would 
invade  our  fields  and  create  as  much  terror  among  the  farmers 
as  they  did  in  Pharaoh's  Eg^;pt.   The  birds  are  the  only  direct 


Fig.  2S1.   A  Warbler 


MISCELLANEOUS 


321 


friends  man  has  to  destroy  these   harmful   insects.    What 
benefactors,  then,  these  Httle  feathered  neighbors  are  ! 

It  has  been  estimated  that  a  bird  will  devour  thirty  insects 
daily.  Even  in  a  widely  extended  forest  region  a  very  few  birds 
to  the  acre,  if  they  kept  up  this  rate,  would  daily  destroy  many 
bushels  of  insects  that  would  play  havoc  with  the  neighboring 
orchards  and  fields. 

Do  not  imagine, 
however,  that  to  de- 
stroy insects  is  the 
only  use  of  birds. 
The  da)-  is  far  more 
delightful  when  the 
birds  sing,  and  when 
we  see  them  flit  in 
and  out,  giving  us  a 
glimpse  now  and  then 
of  their  pretty  coats 
and  quaint  ways.  By 
giving  them  a  home 
we  can  suiTound  our- 
selves with  many  birds,  sweet  of  song  and  brilliant  of  plumage. 

If  the  birds  felt  that  man  were  a  friend  and  not  a  foe,  they 
would  often  turn  to  him  for  protection.  During  times  of 
severe  storm,  extreme  drought,  or  scarcity  of  food,  if  the  birds 
were  sufficiently  tamed  to  come  to  man  as  their  friend,  as 
they  do  in  rare  cases  now,  a  little  food  and  shelter  might 
tide  them  over  the  hard  time  and  their  service  afterwards 
would  repay  the  outlay  a  thousandfold.  If  the  boys  in  your 
families  would  build  bird-houses  about  the  house  and  barn 
and  in  shade  trees,  they  might  save  yearly  a  great  number 
of  birds.    In  building  these  places  of  shelter  and  comfort,  due 


Fig.  282.   The  Hairy  Woodpecker 


322  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

care  must  be  taken  to  keep  them  clear  of  English  sparrows 
and  out  of  the  reach  of  cats  and  bird-dogs. 

Whatever  we  do  to  attract  the  birds  to  make  homes  on 
the  premises  must  be  done  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right 
wa\-.  Think  out  carefully  what  materials  to  pro\'ide  for  them. 
Bits  of  string,  linen,  cotton,  }am,  tow  and  other  waste 
material,  all  help  to  induce  a  pair  to  build  in  the  garden. 


Fig.  ::S3.    Protecting  oir  Friends 

It  is  an  interesting  study  —  the  preparation  of  homes  for 
the  birds.  Trees  mav  be  pruned  to  make  in\iting  crotches. 
A  tangled,  overgro\\Ti  comer  in  the  garden  will  in\-ite  some 
birds  to  nest. 

Wrens,  bluebirds,  chickadees,  martins,  and  some  other 
varieties  are  all  glad  to  set  up  housekeeping  in  man-made 
houses.  The  proper  size  for  a  bird-room  is  easily  remem- 
bered. Give  each  room  six  square  inches  of  floor  space  and 
make  it  eight  inches  high.  Old,  weathered  boards  should  be 
used  ;  or,  if  paint  is  employed,  a  dull  color  to  resemble  an 


MISCELLANEOUS  323 

old  tree-trunk  will  be  most  inviting.  A  single  opening  near 
the  top  should  be  made  two  inches  in  diameter  for  the  larger 
birds  ;  but  if  the  house  is  to  be  headquarters  for  the  wren, 
a  one-inch  opening  is  quite  large  enough,  and  the  small  door 
ser\'es  all  the  better  to  keep  out  English  sparrows. 

The  barn  attic  should  be  turned  over  to  the  swallows. 
Small  holes  may  be  cut  high  up  in  the  gables  and  left  open 
during  the  time  that  the  swallows  remain  with  us.  They 
will  more  than  pay  for  shelter  by  the  good  work  they  do  in 
ridding  the  barn  of  flies,  gnats,  and  mosquitoes. 

SECTION  LXVIII.    FARMING   ON   DRY   LANDS 

Almost  in  the  center  of  the  western  half  of  our  continent 
there  is  a  vast  area  in  which  very  little  rain  falls.  This  sec- 
tion includes  nearly  three  hundred  million  acres  of  land.  It 
stretches  from  Canada  on  the  north  into  Texas  on  the  south, 
and  from  the  Missouri  River  (including  the  Dakotas  and 
western  Minnesota)  on  the  east  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  on 
the  west.  In  this  great  area  farming  has  to  be  done  with  little 
water.  This  sort  of  farming  is  therefore  called  "dry-farming." 

The  soil  in  this  section  is  as  a  rule  very  fertile.  There- 
fore the  difference  between  farming  in  this  dry  belt  and 
farming  in  most  of  the  other  sections  of  our  country  is  a 
difference  mainly  due  to  a  lack  of  moisture. 

As  water  is  so  scarce  in  this  region  two  things  are  of 
the  utmost  importance :  first,  to  save  all  the  rain  as  it 
falls ;  second,  to  save  all  the  water  after  it  has  fallen.  To 
save  the  falling  rain  it  is  necessary  for  the  ground  to  be 
in  such  a  condition  that  none  of  the  much-needed  rain  may 
mn  off.  Every  drop  should  go  into  the  soil.  Hence  the 
farmer  should  never  allow  his  top  soil  to  harden  into  a  crust. 


324 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Such  a  crust  will  keep  the  rain  from  sinking  into  the  thirsty 
soil.  Moreover  the  soil  should  be  deeply  plowed.  The  deeper 
the  soil  the  more  water  it  can  hold.  The  land  should  also 
be  kept  as  porous  as  possible,  for  water  enters  a  porous  soil 
freely.  The  addition  of  humus  in  the  form  of  vegetable 
manures  will  keep  the  soil  in  the  porous  condition  needed. 
Second,  after  the  water  has  entered  the  soil  it  is  important 
to  hold  it  there  so  that  it  may  supply  the  gro\dng  crops.    If 


Fig.  2S4.   The  Disk  Harrow 


the  land  is  allowed  to  remain  untilled  after  a  rain  or  during 
a  hot  spell,  the  water  in  it  will  evaporate  too  rapidly  and  thus 
the  soil,  like  a  well,  vsill  go  dr)'  too  soon.  To  prevent  this  the 
top  soil  should  be  stirred  frequently  \\"ith  a  disk  or  smoothing 
harrow.  This  stirring  will  form  a  mulch  of  dr}'  soil  on  the 
surface,  and  this  will  hold  the  water.  Other  forms  of  mulch 
have  been  suggested,  but  the  soil  mulch  is  the  only  practical 
one.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  surface  cultivation 
must  be  regular!}-  kept  up  if  the  moisture  is  to  be  retained. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


325 


Some  experiments  in  wheat-growing  have  shown  how 
readily  water  might  be  saved  if  plowing  were  done  at  the 
right  time.  Wheat  sowed  on  land  that  was  plowed  as  soon  as 
the  summer  crops  were  taken  off  yielded  a  very  much  larger 
return  than  wheat  sowed  on  land  that  remained  untilled  for 
some  time  after  the  summer  crops  were   gathered.     This 


Fig.  2S5.    Red  Kafir  Corn  in  Shock 


difference  in  yield  on  lands  of  the  same  fertility  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  early  plowing  enabled  the  land  to  take  up 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  moisture. 

In  addition  to  a  vigilant  catching  and  saving  of  water,  the 
farmer  in  these  dr)'  climates  must  give  his  land  the  same 
careful  attention  that  lands  in  other  regions  need.  The  seed- 
bed should  be  most  carefully  prepared.  It  should  be  deep, 
porous,  and  excellent  in  tilth.  During  the  growing  season 
all  crops  should  be  frequently  cultivated.    The  harrow,  the 


326  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

cultivator,  and  the  plow  should  be  kept  busy.  The  soil  should 
be  kept  abundantly  supplied  with  humus. 

Some  crops  need  a  little  different  management  in  dry- 
farming.  Com,  for  example,  does  best  when  it  is  listed ; 
that  is,  planted  so  that  it  will  come  up  three  or  four  inches 
beneath  the  surface.  If  planted  in  this  way,  it  roots  better, 
stands  up  better,  and  requires  less  work. 

Just  as  breeders  study  what  animals  are  best  for  their 
climates,  so  farmers  in  the  dr\'  belt  should  study  what  crops 
are  best  suited  to  their  lands.  Some  crops,  like  the  sorghums 
and  Kafir  com,  are  peculiarly  at  home  in  scantily  watered 
lands.  Others  do  not  thrive.  Experience  is  the  only  sure 
guide  to  the  proper  selection. 

To  sum  up,  then,  farmers  can  grow  good  crops  in  these 
lands  only  when  four  things  are  done  :  first,  the  land  must 
be  thoroughly  tilled  so  that  water  can  freel}'  enter  the  soil ; 
second,  the  land  must  be  frequently  cultivated  so  that  the 
water  \\i\\  be  kept  in  the  soil ;  third,  the  crops  must  be 
properly  rotated  so  as  to  use  to  best  advantage  the  food  and 
water  supply  ;  fourth,  humus  must  be  freely  supplied  so  as 
to  keep  the  soil  in  the  best  possible  condition. 

SECTION   LXIX.    IRRIGATION 

Irrigation  is  the  name  given  to  the  plan  of  supplying  water 
in  large  quantities  to  gi'owing  crops.  Since  the  dawn  of  his- 
tOR-  this  practice  has  been  more  or  less  followed  in  Asia,  in 
Africa,  and  in  Europe.  The  Spanish  settlers  in  the  south- 
western part  of  America  were  probably  the  first  to  introduce 
this  custom  into  our  countn\  In  New  ^lexico  there  is  an 
irrigating  trench  that  has  been  in  constant  use  for  three 
hundred  vears. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


)27 


The  most  common  source  of  water  for  irrigating  purposes 
is  a  river  or  a  smaller  stream.  Artesian  wells  are  used  in 
some  parts  of  the  country.  Windmills  are  sometimes  used 
when  only  a  small  supply  of  water  is  needed.  Engines, 
hydraulic  rams,  and  water-wheels  are  also  employed.  The 
water-wheel  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  one  of  the  most  useful 
methods  of  raising  water  from  streams.  There  are  thousands 
of   these   in   use   in   the   dw  regions   of  the  West.    Small 


Fig.  2S6.    I'uMi'iNG  Water  fuk  Ikkigahon 


buckets  are  fastened  to  a  large  wheel,  which  is  turned  by  the 
current  of  a  stream.  As  the  wheel  turns,  the  buckets  are 
filled,  raised,  and  then  emptied  into  a  trough  called  a  flume. 
The  water  flows  through  the  flume  into  the  irrigating  ditches, 
which  distribute  it  as  it  is  needed  in  the  fields.  In  some 
parts  of  California  and  other  comparatively  dry  sections, 
wells  are  sunk  in  or  near  the  beds  of  underground  streams, 
and  then  the  water  is  pumped  into  ditches  which  convey  it 
to  the  fields  to  be  irrigated. 


328 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Engines  are  often  used  for  pumping  water  from  streams 
and  transferring  it  to  ditches  or  canals.  The  canals  distribute 
the  w^ter  over  the  land  or  over  the  growing  crops. 

None  of  these  methods,  however,  can  be  used  for  watering 
ver}^  large  areas  of  land.  Hence,  as  the  value  of  farm  lands 
increased  other  methods  were  sought.  Shrewd  men  began 
to  turn  longing  eyes  on  the  wide  stretches  of  barren  land  in 
the  West.    They  knew  that  these  waste  lands,  seemingly  so 


Fig.  2S-.   The  Main  Ditch  of  an  Irrigation  Plant 

unfertile,  would  become  most  fruitful  as  soon  as  water  was 
turned  on  them.  Could  water  enough  be  found  ?  New  plans 
to  pen  up  floods  of  water  were  prepared,  and  immense  sums 
were  spent  in  carr}dng  out  these  plans.  Enormous  dams  of 
cemented  stone  were  thro^^•n  across  the  gorges  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  mountains.  Behind  these  solid  dams  the  water 
from  the  rains  and  the  melting  snow  of  the  mountains  was 
backed  for  miles,  and  was  at  once  ready  to  chaiige  barrenness 
into  fruitfulness.    The  stored  water  is  led  bv  means  of  main 


MISCELLANEOUS 


329 


canals  and  cross  ditches  wherever  it  is  needed,  and  countless 
acres  have  been  brought  under  cultivation. 

Water  is  generally  applied  either  by  making  furrows  for 
its  passage  through  the  fields  or  by  flooding  the  land.  The 
latter  plan  is  the  cheaper,  but  it  can  be  used  only  on  level  lands. 
Where  the  land  is  somewhat  irregular  a  checking  system, 
as  it  is  called,  is  used  to  distribute  the  water.  It  is  taken 
from  check  to  check  until  the  entire  field  has  been  irrigated. 


Fiw.  :■ 


illt:    ^Rl'CE^^    ul     IRRIGATING    CoRN 


The  furrow  method  is  usually  employed  for  fruits  and  for 
farm  and  garden  crops.  In  many  places  the  grass  and  grain 
crops  are  now  supplied  with  water  by  furrows  instead  of 
by  flooding. 

Irrigated  lands  should  be  carefully  and  thoroughly  tilled. 
The  water  for  irrigation  is  costly,  and  should  be  made  to  go 
as  far  as  possible.  Good  tillage  saves  the  water.  Moreover, 
all  cultivated  crops  like  corn,  potatoes,  and  orchard  and  tmck 
crops  ought  to  be  cultivated  frequently  to  save  the  moisture. 


330  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

to  keep  the  soil  in  fit  condition,  and  to  aid  the  bacteria  in  the 
soil.  It  was  a  wise  farmer  who  said,  "  One  does  not  need  to 
grow  crops  many  years  in  order  to  leani  that  nothing  can 
take  the  place  of  stirring  the  soil." 

Methods  of  Irrigating  Crops 

Tree  fruits.  Water  is  conducted  through  veiy  narrow  fur- 
rows from  three  to  five  feet  apart,  and  allowed  to  sink  about 
four  feet  deep,  and  to  spread  under  the  ground.  Then  the 
supply  is  cut  off.  The  object  is  to  wet  the  soil  deeply,  and 
then  by  tillage  to  hold  the  moisture  in  the  soil. 

Small  fniits.  The  common  practice  is  to  run  water  on 
each  side  of  the  row  until  the  rows  are  soaked. 

Potatoes.  A  thorough  soaking  is  given  the  land  before 
planting-time,  and  then  no  more  than  is  absolutely  necessar}- 
until  blossoming-time.  After  the  blossoms  appear  keep  the 
soil  moist  until  the  crop  ripens. 

Garden  crops.  Any  method  may  be  employed,  but  the 
vital  point  is  to  cultivate  the  ground  as  early  as  it  can  be 
worked  after  it  has  been  irrigated. 

Meadoii's  and  alfalfa.  Flooding  is  the  most  common 
method  in  use.  The  first  irrigation  comes  early  in  the  spring 
before  gro\\th  has  advanced  much,  and  the  successive  water- 
ings after  the  har\-esting  of  each  crop. 

SECTION   LXX.    LIFE   IN   THE   COUNTRY 

As  ours  is  a  countr}-  in  which  the  people  rule,  even*  boy 
and  even,-  girl  ought  to  be  trained  to  take  a  wide-awake  interest 
in  public  affairs.  This  training  cannot  begin  too  early  in  life. 
A  wise  old  man  once  said,  "  In  a  republic  you  ought  to  begin 
to  train  a  child  for  good  citizenship  on  the  day  of  its  birth." 


Fu;.  2S9.    Beauty  from   Flowers  amj  Grass 


Fig.  2yo.    .V  Col.nirv   Roau  in  Mh(  kel.nhurg  CuUiNiv, 
North  Carolina 


33^ 


332  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGIXNERS 

Happ}'  would  it  be  for  our  nation  if  all  the  young  people 
who  live  in  the  country  could  begin  their  training  in  good 
citizenship  by  becoming  workers  for  these  four  things  : 

First,  attractive  country  homes. 

Second,  attractive  countr}-  schoolhouses  and  school  grounds. 

Third,  good  country  schools. 

Fourth,  good  roads. 

If  the  thousands  on  thousands  of  pupils  in  our  schools 
would  become  active  workers  for  these  things  and  continue 
their  work  through  life,  then,  in  less  than  half  a  centur\-,  life 
in  the  country  would  be  an  unending  delight. 

One  of  the  problems  of  our  day  is  how  to  keep  bright, 
thoughtful,  sociable,  ambitious  boys  and  girls  contented  on 
the  farm.  Every  step  taken  to  make  the  country  home  more 
attractive,  to  make  the  school  and  its  grounds  more  enjoyable, 
to  make  the  way  easy  to  the  homes  of  neighbors,  to  school, 
to  post-office,  and  to  church,  is  a  step  taken  toward  keeping 
on  the  farm  the  ver}-  boys  and  girls  who  are  most  apt  to 
succeed  there. 

Not  even-  man  who  lives  in  the  countn-  can  have  a  showy 
or  costly  home,  but  as  long  as  grass  and  flowers  and  vines 
and  trees  grow,  an\'  man  who  wishes  can  haxe  an  attractive 
house.  Not  ever)^  woman  who  is  to  spend  a  lifetime  at 
the  head  of  a  rural  home  can  have  a  luxuriously  furnished 
home,  but  any  woman  who  is  \A-illing  to  take  a  little  trouble  can 
have  a  cozy,  tastefully  furnished  home  —  a  home  fitted  with 
the  conveniences  that  diminish  household  drudgery.  Even 
in  this  day  of  cheap  literature,  all  parents  cannot  fill  their 
children's  home  with  papers,  magazines,  and  books,  but  by 
means  of  school  and  Sunday-school  libraries,  by  means  of 
circulating  book  clubs,  and  by  a  little  self-denial,  earnest 
parents  can  feed  hungr\-  minds  just  as  they  feed  hungrj-  bodies. 


THE  QUEEN   OF  FLOWERS   FOR  THE   HOME 


333 


oo4 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Agricultural  papers  that  arouse  the  interest  and  quicken 
the  thought  of  farm  bovs  bv  discussing  the  best,  easiest,  and 


Fig.  292.    Ax  Unimproved  Schoolhouse 

cheapest  ways  of  farming  ;  journals  full  of  dainty  suggestions 
for  household  adornment  and  comfort ;  illustrated  papers 
and  magazines  that  amuse  and  cheer  ever\-  member  of  the 
famil}- ;  books  that  rest  tired  bodies  and  open  and  strengthen 


CV»'Hij- "- 


Fig.  293.   An  Improved  Schoolhouse 

growing  minds  —  all  of  these  are  so  cheap  that  the  money 
reser\-ed  from  the  sale  of  one  hog  will  keep  a  family  fairly 
supplied  for  a  year. 


Fig.  294.    The  Same  Road  aeter  and  ueeoke  Imtkuvement 


335 


336  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

If  the  parents,  teachers,  and  pupils  of  a  school  join  hands, 
an  unsightly,  ill-furnished,  ill-lighted,  and  ill-ventilated  school- 
house  can  at  small  cost  be  changed  into  one  of  comfort  and 
beaut}'.  In  many  places  pupils  have  persuaded  their  parents 
to  form  clubs  to  beautify  the  school  grounds.  Each  father 
sends  a  man  or  a  man  with  a  plow  once  or  twice  a  year  to 
work  a  day  on  the  grounds.  Stumps  are  removed,  trees 
trimmed,  drains  put  in,  grass  sowed,  flowers,  shrubben,',  \ines. 


Fig.  293.   Washington's  Country  Home 

and  trees  planted,  and  the  grounds  tastefully  laid  off.  Thus 
at  scarcelv  noticeable  money  cost  a  rough  and  unsightly  school 
ground  gives  place  to  a  charming  school  yard.  Cannot  the 
pupils  in  ever}'  school  in  which  this  book  is  studied  get  their 
parents  to  form  such  a  club,  and  make  their  school  ground 
a  silent  teacher  of  neatness  and  beaut}-  ? 

Life  in  the  countr}-  wiW  never  be  as  attractive  as  it  ought 
to  be  until  all  the  roads  are  improved.  Winter-washed  roads, 


MISCELLANEOUS  337 

penning  young  people  in  their  own  homes  for  many  months 
each  year  and  destroying  so  many  of  the  innocent  pleasures 
of  youth,  build  towns  and  cities  out  of  the  wreck  of  country 
homes.  Can  young  people  who  love  their  country  and  their 
country  homes  engage  in  a  nobler  crusade  than  a  crusade 
for  improved  highways  ? 


APPENDIX 

SPRAYING  MIXTURES 

FOR  BITING  INSECTS 
Dry  Paris  Greex  Wet  Paris  (tReex 

Paris  green  ....      i  lb.       Paris  green      .      .     i  to  2  lb. 
Lime  or  flour    .      4  to  i6  lb.       Lime      .     .      .     .     i  to  1  lb. 

Water    ....  50  gal. 

FOR  SOFT-BODIED  SUCKING  INSECTS 
Kerosene  E.mulsiox 

Hard  soap  (in  fine  shavings) -i^  lb. 

Soft  water i  gal. 

Kerosene 2  gal. 

Dissolve  soap  in  boiling  water,  add  kerosene  to  the  hot  water,  churn 
with  spraying  pump  for  at  least  ten  minutes,  until  the  mixture  changes 
to  a  creamy,  then  to  a  soft,  butterlike,  mass.  This  gives  three  gallons  of 
66-per-cent  oil  emulsion,  which  may  be  diluted  to  the  strength  desired. 
To  get  15-per-cent  oil  emulsion  add  ten  and  one-half  gallons  of  water. 

FOR  FUNGOUS   DISEASES 
Cori'ER    SULFH.VTE 

Copper  sulphate i  lb. 

Water 18  to  25  gal. 

Use  only  before  foliage  opens,  to  kill  wintering  spores. 

Bordeaux  Mi.xtlre 

Copper  sulphate  (bluestone) 4  to  5  lb. 

Lime  (good,  unslaked) 5  to  6  lb. 

Water 50  gal. 

339 


340  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  (bluestone;  in  t\venr\--five  gallons  of 
water.  Slake  the  lime  slowly  so  as  to  get  a  smooth,  thick  cream.  Never 
cover  the  lime  with  too  much  water.  After  thorough  slaking  add 
twenty-five  gallons  of  water.  When  the  lime  and  the  bluestone  have 
dissolved,  pour  the  two  liquids  into  a  third  vessel.  Be  sure  that  each 
stream  mixes  with  the  other  before  either  enters  the  vessel.  Strain 
through  a  coarse  cloth. 

Mix  fresh  for  each  time.  Use  for  molds  and  fungi  generally.  Apply 
in  fine  spray  with  a  good  nozzle. 

Bordeavx-Paris-Greex  Mixture 

Ordinar)-  Bordeaux  mixture 50  gal. 

Paris  green        4  oz.  to  2  lb. 

Use  for  both  fungi  and  insects  on  apple,  potato,  etc. 

Bordeaux-Arsenate-of-Lead  Mixture 

Ordinar}'  Bordeaux  mixture 50  gal. 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  to  3  lb. 

Used  for  fungous  and  insect  enemies  of  the  potato,  and  of  the  apple 
when  bitter  rot  is  troublesome. 

Commercial  Lime-Sulphur  Arsenate  of  Lead 

Commercial  lime-sulphur i^  gal. 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  to  3  lb. 

Water 5°  gal. 

L"se  for  spraying  apples. 

Ammoxiacal  Copper  Carbonate 

Copper  carbonate 5  o^- 

Ammonia  (26°  Baume; about  3  pt. 

Water 5°  gal- 
Dissolve  the  copper  carbonate  in  the  smallest  possible  amount  of 
ammonia.   This  solution  may  be  kept  in  stock  and  diluted  to  the  proper 
strength  as  needed. 

Use  this  instead  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  after  the  fruit  has  reached 
half  or  two  thirds  of  the  mature  size.  It  leaves  no  spots  as  does  the 
lime-sulphur  wash  or  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 


APPENDIX  341 

SPRAYS  FOR  BOTH  FUNGOUS  AND  INSECT  PESTS 

Home-Made  Lime-Sulphur  Wash 

Lime 20  lb. 

Sulphur 15  lb. 

Water 50  gal. 

The  lime,  the  sulphur,  and  about  half  of  the  water  required  are  boiled 
together  for  forty-five  minutes  in  a  kettle  over  a  fire,  or  in  a  barrel  or 
other  suitable  tank  by  steam,  strained,  and  then  diluted  to  50  gallons. 
This  is  the  wash  regularly  used  against  the  San  Jose  scale.  It  may  be 
substituted  for  Bordeaux  mixture  when  spraying  trees  in  the  dormant 
state.  Commercial  lime-sulphur  may  also  be  used  in  place  of  this  home- 
made wash.  Use  one  gallon  of  the  commercial  lime-sulphur  to  nine 
gallons  of  water  in  the  dormant  season. 

Self-Boiled  Lime-Sulphur  Wash 

The  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  wash  is  a  combination  of  lime  and  sulphur 
boiled  only  by  the  heat  of  the  slaking  lime,  and  is  used  chiefly  for 
summer  spraying  on  peaches,  plums,  cherries,  etc.  as  a  substitute  for 
the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Lime 8  lb. 

Sulphur 6  to  8  lb. 

Water 50  gal. 

The  lime  should  be  placed  in  a  barrel  and  enough  water  poured  on  it 
to  start  it  slaking  and  to  keep  the  sulphur  off  the  bottom  of  the  barrel. 
The  sulphur,  which  should  first  be  worked  through  a  sieve  to  break  up 
the  lumps,  may  then  be  added,  and,  finally,  enough  water  to  slake  the 
lime  into  a  paste.  Considerable  stirring  is  necessary  to  prevent  caking 
on  the  bottom.  After  the  violent  boiling  which  accompanies  the  slaking 
of  the  lime  is  over,  the  mixture  should  be  diluted  ready  for  use,  or  at 
least  enough  cold  water  added  to  stop  the  cooking.  From  five  to  fifteen 
minutes  are  required  for  the  process.  If  the  hot  mass  is  permitted  to 
stand  undiluted  as  a  thick  paste,  a  liquid  is  produced  that  is  injurious  to 
peach  foliage  and,  in  some  cases,  to  apple  foliage. 

The  mixture  should  be  strained  through  a  sieve  of  twenty  meshes  to  the 
inch  in  order  to  remove  the  coarse  particles  of  lime,  but  all  the  sulphur 
should  be  worked  through  the  strainer. 


GLOSSARY 


To  enable  young  readers  to  understand  the  technical  words  necessarily 
used  in  the  text  only  popular  definitions  are  given. 

Abdomen :  the  part  of  an  insect  lying  behind  the  thorax. 

Acid  :   a  chemical   name  given   to   many  sour   substances,     ^'inegar 

and  lemon  juice  owe  their  sour  taste  to  the  acid  in  them. 
Adult :   a  person,  animal,  or  plant  grown  to  full  size  and  strength. 
Ammonia  (amjiiotiiiim) :  a  compound  of  nitrogen  readily  usable  as 

a  plant  food.     It  is  one  of  the  products  of  decay. 
Annual :  a  plant  that  bears  seed  during  the  first  year  of  its  existence 

and  then  dies. 
Anther :  the  part  of  a  stamen  that  bears  the  pollen. 
Atmospheric  nitrogen :   nitrogen  in  the  air.      Great  quantities  of  this 

valuable  plant  food  are  in  the  air :   but,  strange  to  say,  most 

plants  cannot  use  it  directly  from  the  air,  but  must  take  it  in 

other  forms,  as  nitrates,  etc.     The  legumes  are  an  exception,  as 

they  can  use  atmospheric  nitrogen. 
Available  plant  food :  food  in  such  condition  that  plants  can  use  it. 
Bacteria :  a  name  applied  to  a  number  of  kinds  of  very  small  living 

beings,  some  beneficial,  some  harmful,  some  disease-producing. 

They  average  about  one  twenty-thousandth  of  an  inch  in  length. 
Balanced  ration  :   a  ration  made  up  of  the  proper  amounts  of  carbo- 
hydrates, fats,  and  protein,  as  explained  in  text.      Such  a  ration 

avoids  all  waste  of  food. 
Biennial :  a  plant  that  produces  seed  during  the  second  year  of  its 

existence  and  then  dies. 
Blight :  a  diseased  condition  in  plants  in  which  the  whole  or  a  part 

of  a  plant  withers  or  dries  up. 
Bluestone  :  a  chemical;  copper  sulphate.     It  is  used  to  kill  fungi,  etc. 

342 


GLOSSARY  343 

Bordeaux   Mixture :    a    mixture    invented    in    Bordeaux,    France,    to 

destroy  disease-producing  fungi. 
Bud  (noun)  :  an  undeveloped  branch. 
Bud  (verb) :  to  insert  a  bud  from  tlie  scion  upon  the  stock  to  insure 

better  fruit. 
Bud  variation :  occasionally  one  bud  on  a  plant  will  produce  a  branch 

differing  in  some  ways  from  the  rest  of  the  branches  ;  this  is  bud 

variation.     The  shoot  that  is  produced  by  bud  variation  is  called 

a  sport. 
Calyx :  the  outermost  row  of  leaves  in  a  flower. 
Cambium:   the  growing  layer  lying  between  the  wood  and  the  bark. 
Canon  :  the  shank  bone  above  the  fetlock  in  the  fore  and  hind  legs 

of  a  horse. 
Carbohydrates  :    carbohydrates  are  foods  free  from,  nitrogen.     They 

make  up  the  largest  part  of  all  vegetables.     Examples  are  sugar, 

starch,  and  cellulose. 
Carbolic  acid  :  a  chemical  often  used  to  kill  or  prevent  the  growth  of 

germs,  bacteria,  fungi,  etc. 
Carbon  :  a  chemical  element.     Charcoal  is  nearly  pure  carbon. 
Carbon  disulphide  :  a  chemical  used  to  kill  insects. 
Carbonic  acid  gas  :  a  gas  consisting  of  carbon  and  oxygen.     It  is  pro- 
duced by  breathing,  and  whenever  carbon  is  burned.     It  is  the 

source  of  the  carbon  in  plants. 
Cereal :  the  name  given  to  grasses  that  are  raised  for  the  food  con- 
tained in  their  seeds,  such  as  corn,  wheat,  rice. 
Cobalt :  a  poisonous  chemical  used  to  kill  insects. 
Cocoon :  the  case  made  by  an  insect  to  contain  its  lar\-a  or  pupa. 
Commercial  fertilizer :  an  enriching  plant  food  bought  to  improve  soil. 
Compact :  a  soil  is  said  to  be  compact  when  the  particles  are  closely 

packed. 
Concentrated :  when  applied  to  food  the  word  means  that  it  contains 

much  feeding  value  in  small  bulk. 
Contagious :  a  disease  is  said  to  be  contagious  when  it  can  be  spread 

or  carried  from  one  individual  to  another. 
Cross :  the  result  of  breeding  two  varieties  of  plant  together. 
Cross  pollination :  the  pollination  of  a  flower  by  pollen  brought  from 

a  flower  on  some  other  plant 


344  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Croup  :  the  top  of  the  hips. 

Culture:  the  art  of  preparing  ground  for  seed  and  raising  crops  by 

tillage. 
Curb  disease :  a  swelling  on  the  back  part  of  the  hind  leg  of  a  horse 

just  behind  the  lowest  part  of  the  hock  joint.     It  generally  causes 

lameness. 
Curculio :  a  kind  of  beetle  or  weevil. 

Dendrolene :  a  patented  substance  used  for  catching  cankerworms. 
Digestion:  the  act  by  which  food  is  prepared  by  the  juices  of  the 

body  to  be  used  by  the  blood. 
Dormant :  a  word  used  to  describe  sleeping  or  resting  bodies,  —  bodies 

not  in  a  state  of  activity. 
Drainage  :  the  process  by  which  an  excess  of  water  is  removed  from 

the  land  by  ditches,  terraces,  or  tiles. 
Element :    a    substance    that   cannot    be    divided    into    simpler   sub- 
stances. 
Ensilage  :  green  foods  preserved  in  a  silo. 
Evaporate :  to  pass  off  in  vapor,  as  a  fluid  often  does ;    to  change 

from  a  solid  or  liquid  state  into  vapor,  usually  by  heat. 
Exhaustion:  the  state  in  which  strength,  power,  and  force  have  been 

lost.     When  applied  to  land,  the  word  means  that  land  has  lost 

its  power  to  produce  well. 
Fermentation :  a  chemical  change  produced  by  bacteria,  yeast,  etc. 

A  common  example  of  fermentation  is  the  change  of  cider  into 

vinegar. 
Fertility  :  the  state  of  being  fruitful.      Land  is  said  to  be  fertile  when 

it  produces  well. 
Fertilization :  the  act  which  follows  pollination  and  enables  a  flower 

to  produce  seed. 
Fetlock:    the  long-haired  cushion  on  the  back  side  of  a  horse's  leg 

just  above  the  hoof. 
Fiber :  any  fine,  slender  thread  or  threadlike  substance,  as  the  rootlets 

of  plants  or  the  lint  of  cotton. 
Filter :  to  purify  a  liquid,  as  water,  by  causing  it  to  pass  througli 

some  substance,  as  paper,  cloth,  screens,  etc. 
Formalin :  a  forty  per  cent  solution  of  a  chemical  known  as  formal- 
dehyde.    Formalin  is  used  to  kill  fungi,  bacteria,  etc. 


GLOSSARY  345 

Formula :  a  recipe  for  the  making  of  a  compound ;  for  example,  fer- 
tilizer or  spraying  compounds. 
Fungicide :  a  substance  used  to  kill  or  prevent  the  growth  of  fungi ; 

for  example,  Bordeaux  Mixture  or  copper  sulphate. 
Fungous  :  belonging  to  or  caused  by  fungi. 
Fungus  (plural  fungi)  :    a  low  kind  of    plant  life  lacking  in  green 

color.     Molds  and  toadstools  are  examples. 
Germ :  that  from  which  anything  springs.     The  term  is  often  applied 

to   any  very  small  organism  or  living  thing,  particularly  if  it 

causes  great  effects  such  as  disease,  fermentation,  etc. 
Germinate  :  to  sprout.     A  seed  germinates  when  it  begins  to  grow. 
Girdle  :  to  make  a  cut  or  groove  around  a  limb  or  tree. 
Glacier :  an  immense  field  or  stream  of  ice  formed  in  the  region  of 

constant  snow  and  moving  slowly  down  a  slope  or  valley. 
Globule :  a  small  particle  of  matter  shaped  like  a  globe. 
Glucose :  a  kind  of  sugar  very  common  in  plants.     The  sugar  from 

grapes,  honey,  etc.  is  glucose.     That  from  the  sugar  cane  is  not. 
Gluten :  a  vegetable  form  of  protein  found  in  cereals. 
Graft :  to  place  a  living  branch  or  stem  on  another  living  stem  so 

that  it  may  grow  there.     It  insures  the  growth  of  the  desired 

kind  of  plant. 
Granule  :  a  little  grain. 
Gypsum :  land  plaster. 
"  Head  back  "  :  to  cut  or  prune  a  tree  so  as  to  form  its  head,  that  is, 

the  place  where  the  main  trunk  first  gives  off  its  branches. 
Heredity :  the  resemblance  of  offspring  to  parent. 
Hibernating :  to  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid  or  inactive  state  in  close 

quarters. 
Hock  :  the  joint  in  the  hind  leg  of  ciuadrupeds  between  the  leg  and 

the  shank.      It  corresponds  to  the  ankle  in  man. 
Host :  the  plant  upon  which  a  fungus  or  insect  is  preying. 
Humus :  the  portion  of  the  soil  caused  by  the  decay  of  animal  or 

vegetable  matter. 
Hybrid  :  the  result  of  breeding  two  different  kinds  of  plants  together. 
Hydrogen:  a  chemical  element.     It  is  present  in  water   and   in  all 

living  things. 
Individual :  a  single  person,  plant,  animal,  or  thing  of  any  kind. 


34<5  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Inoculate :  to  give  a  disease  by  inserting  the  germ  that  causes  it  in 

a  healthy  being. 
Insectivorous  :  anj-thing  that  eats  insects. 
Kainit :  salts  of  potash  used  in  making  fertilizers. 
Kernel :  a  single  seed  or  grain,  as  a  kernel  of  corn. 
Kerosene  emulsion  :  see  Appendix. 

Larva  (plural  larvae) :  the  young  or  immature  form  of  an  insect. 
Larval:    belonging  to  lan-a. 

Layer :  to  propagate  plants  by  a  method  similar  to  cutting,  but  differ- 
ing from  cutting  in  that  the  young  plant  takes  root  before  it  is 

separated  from  the  parent  plant. 
Legume :  a  plant  belonging  to   the  family  of  the  pea,  clover,  and 

bean ;  that  is.  having  a  flower  of  similar  structure. 
Lichen  :  a  kind  of  flowerless  plant  that  grows  on  stones,  trees,  boards, 

etc. 
Loam :  an  earthy  mixture  of  clay  and  sand  with  organic  matter. 
Magnesia  :   an  earth}-  white  substance  somewhat  similar  to  lime. 
Magnify  :  to  make  a  thing  larger  in  fact  or  in  appearance ;  to  enlarge 

the  appearance  of  a  thing  so  that  the  parts  may  be  seen  more  easily. 
Membrane :  a  thin  layer  or  fold  of  animal  or  vegetable  matter. 
Mildew :  a  cobw^ebby  growth  of  fungi  on  diseased  or  decaying  things. 
Mold :  see  wZ/^^zt'. 
Mulch  :   a  covering  of  straw,  leaves,  or  like  substances  over  the  roots 

of  plants  to  protect  them  from  heat  drought  etc.,  and  to  preser\-e 

moisture. 
Nectar :  a  sweetish  substance  in  blossoms  of  flowers  from  which  bees 

make  honey. 
Nitrate  :  a  readilv  usable  form  of  nitrogen.     The  most  common  nitrate 

is  saltpeter. 
Nitrogen :  a  chemical  element,  one  of  the  most  important  and  most 

expensive  plant  foods.       It  exists  in  fertilizers,  in  ammonia,  in 

nitrates,  and  in  organic  matter. 
Nodule :   a  little  knot  or  bump. 

Nutrient :  anv  substance  which  nourishes  or  promotes  growth. 
Organic  matter :  substances  made  through  the  growth  of  plants  or 

animals. 
Ovary :  the  particular  part  of  the  pistil  that  bears  the  immature  seed. 


GLOSSARY  347 

Ovipositor  :  the  organ  with  which  an  insect  deposits  its  eggs. 

Oxygen  :  a  gas  present  in  the  air  and  necessary  to  breathing. 

Particle :  any  very  small  part  of  a  body. 

Perennial :  living  through  several  years.     All  trees  are  perennial. 

Petal :  a  single  leaf  of  the  corolla. 

Phosphoric  acid  :  an  important  plant  food  occurring  in  bones  and  rock 

phosphates. 
Pistil :  the  part  of  the  blossom  that  contains  the  immature  seeds. 
Pollen :  the  powdery  substance  borne  by  the  stamen  of  the  flower. 

It  is  necessary  to  seed  production. 
Pollination :  the  act  of  carrying  pollen  from  stamens  to  pistils.     It  is 

usually  done  by  the  wind  or  by  insects. 
Porosity :  tlie  state  of  having  small   openings  or  passages  between 

the  particles  of  matter. 
Potash :  an   important   part   of  plant  foods.      The    chief  source  of 

potash  is  kainit,  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash,  wood 

ashes,  and  cotton-hull  ashes. 
Propagate :  to  cause  plants  or  animals  to  increase  in  number. 
Protein:  the  name  of  a  group  of  substances  containing  nitrogen.     It 

is  one  of  the  most  important  of  feeding  stuffs. 
Pruning :  trimming  or  cutting  parts  that  are  not  needed  or  that  are 

injurious. 
Pulverize :  to  reduce  to  a  dustlike  state. 
Pupa :  an  insect  in  the  stage  of  its  life  that  comes  just  before  the 

adult  condition. 
Purity  (of  seed)  :  seeds  are  pure  when  they  contain  only  one  kind  of 

seed  and  no  foreign  matter. 
Ration :  a  fixed  daily  allowance  of  food  for  an  animal. 
Raupenleim  :  a  patented  sticky  substance  used  to  catch  the  cankerworm. 
Resistant :  a  plant  is  resistant  to  disease  when  it  can  ward  off  attacks 

of  the  disease ;  for  example,  some  varieties  of  the  grape  are  resist- 
ant to  the  phylloxera. 
Rotation  (of  crops)  :  a  well-arranged  succession  of  different  crops  on 

the  same  land. 
Scion :  a  shoot,  sprout,  or  branch  taken  to  graft  or  bud  upon  another 

plant. 
Seed  bed  :  the  laver  of  earth  in  which  seeds  are  sown. 


34S  AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINXERS 

Seed  selection :  tze  caxefol  selection  of  seed  from  particular  plants 

with  the  object  of  keeping  or  increasing  some  desirable  quality. 
Seedling :  a  young  tt'Is^t  ^  -st  from  the  seed- 
Sepal  :  one  of  the  ^r:    t-    :.  die  calyx. 
Set:  ayoungplan:  ::r  :-      i^\:::n. 
Silo:  a  house  or  pi:  ;.:■    _  avay  green  food  fM"  winter  use  so 

as  to  exclude  air  and  moisture. 
Sire:  father. 
Smut :  a  disease  of  plants,  pardculariy  of  cereals,  which  causes  die 

plant  or  some  part  of  it  to  become  a  powdery  mass. 
Spike :  a  lengthened  flower  cluster  widi  staUdess  floweis. 
Spiracle :  an  air  opening  in  the  body  of  an  insect. 
Spore :  a  small  body  formed  by  a  fungus  to  reproduce  the  fungus. 

It  serves  the  same  use  as  seeds  do  for  flowering  plants. 
Spray :  to  apply  a  liquid  in  the  form  of  a  Tery  fine  mist  by  the  aid  of 

a  spraying  pump  tor  the  purpose  of  killing  fungi  or  insects. 
Stamen :  the  part  of  the  flower  that  bears  the  poUen. 
Stamina:  endurance. 
Sterilize:  to   destroy  all  the  germs   or  spores  in  or  on  anjihing. 

Sterilizing  is  often  done  by  heat  cm-  chonicals. 
Stigma :  the  part  of  the  pistil  that  receives  the  pdlen. 
Stock :  the  stem  or  main  part  of  a  tree  or  plant.     In  grafting  or  bud- 
ding the  scion  is  insoted  upon  the  stock. 
Sbarex :  as  used  in  diis  book  die  word  means  the  dry  stalks  of  com 

from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed. 
Sabscil :  the  sofl  undo-  the  topsoil. 
Sulrh-T  :  a  yellowish  chemical  element;  twimstone. 
lai:: ::  r.  i'-  root  of  a  plant,  which  runs  direcdy  down  into  the 

-s^derable  depth  without  dividing. 
TerriTr  ,  r:h  run  on  a  level  around  a  slope  or  hillside  to 

j;;ei   :    ;    :  :  .  :.cni  washing. 
Thorax  :   :   r  r    :  i'.t  part  of  the  body  of  an  insect     The  thwax  lies 

' :  -nen  and  the  head. 
T 1 1 :  -    -  t  -.  T :  - :  -imeat  for  measuring  heat. 

T:..i   7  .     :  'rr'iri-5  land  for  seec.  2^1  ktezir-g  the  ground 

.-.  _       .__::  ;-.^:=  i_:  .le  growth  of  crops. 


GLOSSARY  349 

Transplant :  a  plant  grown  in  a  bed  with  a  view  to  being  removed  to 

other  soil;  a  technical  term  used  by  gardeners. 
Tubercle  :  a  small,  wartlike  growth  on  the  roots  of  legumes. 
Udder :  the  milk  vessel  of  a  cow. 
Utensil :  a  vessel  used  lor  household  purposes. 
Variety  :  a  particular  kind.     For  example,  the  Winesap,  Bonum,yEsop, 

etc.,  are  different  varieties  of  apples. 
Ventilate :  to  open  to  the  free  passage  of  air. 
Virgin  soil :  a  soil  which  has  never  been  cultivated. 
Vitality  (of  seed)  :  vitality  is  the  ability-  to  grow.     Seed  are  of  good 

vitalit}-  if  a  large  per  cent  of  them  will  sprout. 
Weathering :  the  action  of  moisture,  air,  frost,  etc.  upon  rocks. 
Weed :   a  plant  out  of  place.     A  wheat  plant  in  a  rose  bed  or  a  rose 

in  the  wheat  field  would  be  regarded  as  a  weed,  as  would  any 

plant  growing  in  a  place  in  which  it  is  not  wanted. 
Wilt  (of  cotton)  :  a  disease  of  cotton  in  which  the  whole  plant  droops 

or  wilts. 
Withers :  the  ridge  between  the  shoulder  bones  of  a  horse,  at  the 

base  of  the  neck. 
Yeast :  a  preparation  containing  the  yeast  plant  used  to  make  bread 

rise.  etc. 


INDEX 


Acid  phosphate,  23,  214,  225 
Alfalfa,  28,  179,  187,  242,  244,  245, 

246-248 
Alfalfa  root,  28 
Animals,  domestic,  261-292 

why  we  feed,  290 
Annual,  69,  112,  118,  260 
Ant,  144,  150 
Anther,  43 
Apple,  42,  59,  76,  78,  83-85,  123 

fire-blight  of,  130 
Apple-tree  tent  caterpillar,  161,  162 
Arsenate  of  lead,  156,  157 
Ashes,  207 
Asparagus,  98 

Babcock  milk-tester,  304 

Bacteria,  24,  127,  128,  129,  131,  133 

Balanced  ration,  294-295 

Barley,  215-217 

Beans,  95,  98 

Bee,  286-290 

Beehive,  anti-robbing  entrance  of, 

289    • 
Beet,  95,  96 

sugar-,  2 1 8-2 2 1 
Beet  sugar,  218 
Beetle,  146,  148 

cucumber,  102 

potato,  170 
Biennials,  70 
Bird  homes,  322 
Birds,  31^-32^3 
Black  knot,  140 
Blackberry,  59 
Blight,  106 

eggplant,  103 

pear  and  apple,  130 

potato,  138,  209 

tomato,  106 
Bordeaux    mixture,    127,    141,    142, 

156,  209 


Borer,  peach,  163,  164 
Breeding-cage,  insect,  152 
Buckwheat,  229-230 
Bud  variation,  58 
Budding,  55,  81-82 
Buds,  51,  59 
Bug,  147 

Bulbs,  109,  I  ID,  III 
Burbank,  Luther,  80 
Butter,  297,  300 
Butterfly,  146,  14S,  149 

Cabbage,  93,  95,  96,  99 

Cabbage  worm,  165,  166 

Caladium,  1 1 1 

Cambium,  79,  131 

Cankerworm,  159,  160 

Canna,  1 16 

Cantaloupes,  loi 

Cape  jasmine,  1 10 

Capillarity,  10 

Carbohydrates,  291,  292,  295 

Carbon,  39,  40,  291 

Carbon  disulphide,  169 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  6,  317 

Caterpillar,  147,  149,  161 

Cattle,  270-275 

beef  type  of,  272 
dairy  type  of,  273 
improving  of,  274 

Cauliflower,  91,  140 

Celery,  100,  loi 

Cherries,  59.  81,  164 

Chinch  bug,  165,  167 

Churn,  the,  297,  299,  300 

Churning,  299 

Cleft  grafting,  80 

Clover,  187,  249-251 

Club  root,  140 

Cocoon,  147,  148,  150.  151 

Codling  moth,  154,  156,  164 

Cold-frame,  93-97,  101 


35' 


352 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Colostrum,  297 
Consumprion,  germ  of,  129 
Corms,  III 
Com,  197-202 

blossom  of,  45 

freezing  of  seed,  75 

roots  of,  27,  28 

selection  of  seed,  66,  67,  68 
Cotton.  180-188 

resistant  variet)'  of,  132 

Sea  Island,  132,  182 

short-stapled,  182 
Cotton  w"ilt,  142 
Cotton-boU  wee\-il,  173 
Cotton-seed  meal,  24,  225,  295 
Cow- 
Aberdeen  Angus,  272 

Galloway,  274 

Holstein,  275 

Jersey,  273 

care  of,  296 

the  dairy,  293-296 
Cowpeas,  251-254 
Cream,  297,  298 
Crop-rotation,  33-37 
Crops,  178-237 

rotation    of,    20,    33,   1S9,  211, 
217,  219,  228 

value  of,  per  acre,  179 
Cross  section,  26 
Crosses,  49 
Cross-pollination,  48 
Cucumber,  73.  10 1 
Cucumber  beetle,  102 
Curculio,  plum,  156 
Currant,  59 

Cuttings.  52,  53,  54,  55.  109 
Cyclamen,  1 1 3 

Dahlia,  in,  112,  116 
Dair>-  rules,  301 
Dairying,  297-301 
Dendrolene,  160 
Diphtheria,  germ  of,  129 
Diseases  of  plants,  122-143 
Domestic  animals,  261-292 
Drainage,  benefits  of,  15 
Dr)-  farming,  323-326 
Ducks,  282 

Eggplants.  102,  103 
Ensilage,  295 


Farm  crops,  17S-237 

Farm  garden,  235-237 

Farm  tools,  315-315 

Farming  on  dr)-  lands,  323-330 

Fats,  291,  292,  295 

Feed  stuffs,  238-260 

digestible  nutrients  in,  290-292 
growing,  on  the  farm,  309-313 

Feeding  animals,  290 
reasons  for,  290,  292 

Fertilization,  45 

Fertilizers,  22-24 

Field  insects,  144-177 

Figs.  51.  59 

Fire-blight,  130 

Flax.  226-229 

Flea-beetle,  169,  172,  209 

Floriculture,  89,  108 

Flower,  the,  42,  43 

Flower  box,  112 

Flower  gardening,  108— 121 

Fly,  146,  150 

Formalin,  135.  136.  138 

Fowls,  282-286 

Fruit  mold,  126,  142 

Fruit  rot,  122 

Fruit  tree,  how  to  raise  a,  76-87 

Fultz.  Abraham,  65 

Fungi,  125,  126,  127 

Garden,  235-237 

Garden  insects,  165-177 

Gardening,  market-,  89-90 

Geese,  284 

Geranium,  52,  54,  109,  no 

Germs,   24,  127,  129,  131,  135;  see 

also  Bacteria 
Girdler,  162 
Girdling,  41 
Glacier,  3,  4,  5 
Gladiolus,  92,  in 
Gooseberries,  59 
Grafting,  55.  78-81 

cleft.  80 

root,  79 

time  for,  79 

tongue,  79,  80 
Grafting  wax,  79 
Grape,  51,  53.  58.  59 
Grape  cutting,  54 
Grape  phylloxera,  157,  158 
Grape  pollination,  52.  53 


INDEX 


:>Do 


Grasses.  23S-244 
Grasshopper.  14S.  151 
Greenhouse,  91-94 

Heading  back.  S3 
Hemp.  226-229 
Hens.  2S2-2S6 
Herediu".  67 
Hessian  fly,  170 
Homes,  counm-.  330-337 
Hone\-  dew.  167 
Horse.  262-270 

diasrrams    bv  which  to   judge. 
265-269   ' 

Percheron.  264 

proportions  of.  270 

roadster.  267 
Horticulture.  S9-121 
Host,  126 
Hotbed.  91-97 

How  to  raise  a  fruit  tree.  76-S7 
Humus.  5.  20,  21.  22.  193.  207 
Husker  and  shredder.  201 
Hybrids.  49.  50,  51,  1  S3 

Insects,  cage  for  breeding,  1 52 

classes  of.  146 

eggs  of.  1 50 

eyes  of.  145 

field.  144.  165 

garden. 144-177 

general.  144 

how  thev  feed.  146.  147 

orchard.  144 

parts  of,  145 
Irish,  or  white,  potato.  206-209 

propagation  of,  56,  57 
Irrigation,  326-330 

method  of,  330 

Kafir  com.  325.  326 

Kainite.  214 

Kerosene  emulsion.  16S 

Land,  improvement  of.  17,  21,  31, 

34-  -44 
Landscape-gardening.  S9 
Larva.  147.  14S 
Layering.  55,  57 
Legumes.  31.  207.  244-260 
Lettuce.  91.  93.  95 
Life  in  the  country,  330-337 


Lime,  140 

Lime-sulphur  wash,    141,   142.  153, 

154.  156 
Liming  land,  315-31S 
Louse,  plant,  150,  151.  152,  167 

Machines,  farm,  313-315 
Maize.  197 
Manures,  20,  21-24 
Maple  sugar,  217 
Market-gardening.  S9.  90 
Meadows.  240.  242 
Melons.  loi.  106 
Mildew.  124 

how  to  prevent,  126 
Milk,  297 

sours,  how.  302 
Milk-tester.  Babcock.  304 
Mineral  matter,  291.  292 
Moisture.  9 
Mold.  123.  124,  125 
Moonflower,  1 1 5 
Moming-glon,-,  1 1 5 
Moth,  1 48 

codling.  154.  156.  164 

mosquito.  150 
Mulch.  12 

Narcissus,  114 

Nectar,  46,  47 

Nitrate  of  soda.  24.  99.  211.  214 

Nitrogen.  15.  2^.  24.  31.  32.  34.  35. 

36,  37.  iSS.  246 
Nitrogen-gathering    crops,    15,    iS, 

244-260 
Nodules,  36 

Oats,  209-215 
Oat  smut,  134 
Onion.  103.  104 
Orchard  insects.  143 
Osmosis,  30 
Ovan.-,  44 
Ovipositor,  157 

Paris  green,  165,  209 

Parsnips,  94 

Pasture  grasses,  23S-244 

Peach.  42.  59.  Si,  84,  S5,  S7,  141.  142 

Peach  curl.  141,  143 

Peach  mold,  142 

Peach  mummies,  142 


354 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Peach  tree,  how  made,  86-87 

Peach-tree  borer,  163,  164 

Peanuts,  202-203 

Pear,  44,  49,  59,  81,  130 

Pear  fire-blight,  1 30 

Peas,  95,  104,  251-254 

Perennials,  71,  112,  116,  118,  260 

Petal,  43 

Phosphoric  acid,   23,   24,   186,   188, 

196.  216,  244,  254 
Phylloxera,  157,  158 
Pipette,  305 
Pistil,  43,  44 
Plant,  the,  25,  39 
Plant  disease,  cause  of,  122 

nature  of,  122 

prevention  of,  122,  129 
Plant  food,  18,  19,  20,  21,  24 

from  air,  39 

from  soil,  29 

kinds  of,  33 
Plant  louse,  150,  152,  167,  16S 
Plant  seeding,  59,  109 
Planting  a  tree,  76-S7 
Plant-propagation,  51-59 

by  buds,  51 
Plants  grown  from  seed,  109 

from  bulbs,  109 
Plow,  right  way  to,  1 1 
Plum  curculio,  156,  157 
Plums,  43,  59,  81,  164 
Pollen,  43,  47,  48 
Pollination,  45-48 

by  hand,  49 

cross-,  49,  50 

grape,  52,  53 
Potash,  23,  24,   1S6,   188,   196,  207, 

216,  244,  246,  254 
Potato,  sweet,  204,  205 

white,  or  Irish,  56,  57,  206-209 
Potato  beetle,  170,  209 
Potato  blight,  138,  209 
Potato  scab,  136,  205,  209 
Potato  seed,  56,  57 
Poultry,  282-286 
Prevention   of  plant  diseases,   129, 

130 
Propagation  of  plants  by  buds,  58 

by  cuttings,  52 
Protein,  212,  291,  294,  295,  297 
Pruning,  83,  84-87 

root,  85,  86 


Pupa,  147,  150,  151 
Purity  of  seed,  72-75 
Pyrethrum  powder,  165 

Quince,  59 

Radish,  95 

Raspberry,  59 

Ration,  balanced,  294,  295 

Ratoon,  225 

Red  raspberry,  59 

Rice,  231-232 

Roads,  332,  337 

Root-hairs,  24,  25,  27,  29,  32 

Root-pruning,  86 

Roots,  25,  26,  27,  28 

Root-tubercles,  30,  37 

Rose,  109,  121,  124 

Rot  of  fruit,  122 

Rotation  of  crops,  8,  20,  21,  33-37 

189,  211,  217,  219,  228 
Rye,  213-215 

San  Jose  scale,  152,  153 
Sap  current,  the,  40 
Scab,  136,  209 
Schoolhouses,  334 
Scion,  79,  81,  82 
Seed,  42 

Seed  purity,  72-75 
Seed  vitality,  72-75 
Seed-germination,  74 
Seed-germinator,  74 
Seeding,  60,  1 14 
Seed-selection,  56,  62,  64,  66 

in  the  field,  56,  62,  68 

of  corn,  66 

of  cotton.  60,  61 

of  potatoes,  56,  57 

of  wheat,  64,  65 
Seed-selection  plat,  63,  64 
Selection   of  seed.   See  Seed-selec- 
tion 
Sepal,  43 
Sheep,  276-279 
Silo,  295 
Smuts,  134,  135 
Soil,  I 

bacteria  in,  24 

deepening  of,  8 

definition  of,  i 

drainage  of,  14 


INDEX 


355 


Soil,  how  formed.  2.  3 

how  water  rises  in,  13 

impro\ing,  17 

manuring  of,  21 

moisture  of,  9 

origin  of.  i 

particles  of,  magnified,  10 

and  plant,  25 

retention  of  water  by,  1 2 

tillage  of.  6 

virgin.  17.  iS 
Sowing  seed.  94 
.Soy  beans.  236-260 
Spiders,  red.  121 
Spiracles,  145 
Spores.  123.  124.  125,  130,  135 

prevention  of,  130 
Spraying.   137,  138,   139,    155,    156, 

157,209 
Spra\-ing  outfit,  13S,  155,  16S,  171 
Squanto.  21 
Squash,  45.  95 
Squash  bug.  16S 
Stamen.  43-4S 
Starch.  40 
Starchy  food.  291 
Stigma,  44-45 
Stock.  79.  S2 
Strawberry  4;.  ;:.  ;9,  90 

St)-le,  43 

Subsoil.  I 

Subsoiling,  10 

Sugar,  40 

Sugar  plants,  217 

Sugar-beet,  21S-221 

Sugar-cane.  221 

Sugar-maple.  217 

Sulphate  of  ammonia.  211 

Sun-scald.  84 

Sweet  pea.  114,  115 

Sweet  potato,  56,  57,  1 1 1 ,  204-205 

Swine.  279-282 

Tent  caterpillar,  162 
Tile  drain.  15.  16 

benefits  of,  14 
Tillage,  6-9,  19.  28,  200 
Timber,  232-235 

enemies  of,  233 
Tobacco,  1 89- 1 92 


Tobacco  worm.  170,  172 
Tomato,  40,  105 
Tongue  grafting,  79,  So 
Tools,  313 

Topping  tobacco,  191 
Trap  plant,  16S 
Tree,  manuring  of.  26 
Truck  crops,  98- 107 
Tubercle,  30,  32 
TuU,  Tethro,  6 
quoted.  6 
Turkeys,  282 
Tiumip,  95 
Twig  girdler.  1 62 
Typhoid  fever,  germ  of,  129 

Vetches,  255-257 
Vitality-  of  seed,  72-75 

Wasp.  146 
Water.  10 

absorption  of.  by  plants,  10 

retention  of.  by  soil,  9 

rise  of,  in  soil.  13 

saved  by  plants,  10 

saved  by  soils.  12 
Watermelons,  106 
Wax.  79 

Weathering.  4,  7 
Weeds,  69,  74 

annual.  69 

biennial,  70 

perennial,  71 
Weevil.  169 

cotton-boll,  173-177 

plum,  156 
Wheat.  192-197 

selection  of  seed,  63 

peld  of,  64 
Why  feed  animals,  290 
Wilt 

cotton.  142 

watermelon.  107 
Window  box.  1 1 8 
Window-garden.  119-121 
Window-gardening.  1 19 
Worn-out  land,  reclaiming  of,   19, 
244 

Yeast,  127,  128 


